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What Is an Electrical Actuator?

An electrical actuator is a drive unit that uses a motor to drive a cylinder or slider.

Since motors are used as the drive source, the electrical actuator is more responsive and efficient than pneumatic or hydraulic actuators.

Uses of Electrical Actuators

Electrical actuators are mainly used in industrial equipment. Applications are diverse, including precision positioning of moving platforms. The following is a list of applications.

• Loading and carrying applications, such as moving and transporting workpieces
• Pushing applications, such as workpiece removal and storage
• For positioning tables, arm driving, and other applications where the workpiece is loaded and turned
• Used for automation of production plants

Since the built-in servo motor provides precise motion, it is often used for machining small parts.

In recent years, sales of electrical actuators for in-vehicle use have been increasing along with the expansion of sales of electric vehicles.

Principle of Electrical Actuators

The main components of an electrical actuators are a motor, ball screw, and guide.

The motor and ball screw are connected by gears or belts, and the rotational motion of the motor is converted to linear motion by the ball screw. Position control of the linear motion can be achieved by controlling the rotation speed of the motor.

Servomotors or stepping motors are often used as the drive source motor, enabling precise positioning.

Other Information on Electrical Actuators

 1. Use in the Automotive Field

In recent years, there has been a growing demand for automated driving, decarbonization, and clean energy in the automotive field. As a result, many companies are developing versatile electrical actuators.

Electrical actuators are used for clutches, shifts, brakes, levers, electric pumps, electric valves for engines, and electric throttles.

The motor shaft arrangement (coaxial series type, parallel shaft type, etc.) and size can be selected. This reduces the cost of custom development for each vehicle model. 

2. Electrical Actuators Market Share

The global electrical actuators market is expected to grow to $843.86 million between 2020 and 2024. Below is the background of the market size growth.

• Increasing use of electrical actuators in the widespread adoption of robots
• Growing demand for smart actuators
• Growing demand for civilian and defense aircraft
• Growing demand for automation in developing countries
• Growing need for flexible production systems utilizing robots

The market is expected to expand as new technologies, such as AI, are developed.

3. Control of Electrical Actuators

Electrical actuators are incorporated into industrial robots. Electrical actuators incorporated in industrial robots can be easily operated from a teaching box attached to the robot. The robot can be controlled by sending arbitrary instructions from the teaching box. This is expected to reduce takt time. The teaching box controls the electrical actuators using a programming language for robots. Since the robot itself and the electrical actuators can be controlled simultaneously by the program, control errors between devices can be eliminated and control accuracy can be improved.

What Is ASIC?

ASIC stands for “Application Specific Integrated Circuit.” It is an integrated circuit or microchip that’s been created specifically for a particular application, such as high-speed processing of communications and images. As the “Application-Specific” label implies this hardware solution is a custom-built piece of electronics that’s tailor-made to satisfy a specific purpose.

The advantages of ASIC include high performance, compactness, and cost reduction in manufacturing. By prototyping those application-specific features early in the design process, individual needs are addressed with great effectiveness. However, compared to FPGAs, ASIC systems have the disadvantage of requiring a longer development period. There are also higher development costs to offset due to an inability to rewrite system software and circuits. After all, FPGAs are programmable, but ASIC circuits don’t incorporate this degree of flexibility. Even so, ASIC circuits are ideal for high production runs, and, since large production lines are common, so are ASICs. One example of this line of thinking is a newly minted mobile phone. The hardware has been prototyped and passed through numerous design runs, so no reprogramming work is anticipated. 

Uses of ASICs

ASICs are used in a wide range of applications, including home appliances, well-known consumer devices (mobile phones), communications equipment, image processing systems, industrial equipment, and computers.

• High-speed processing ICs for high-speed Internet communications in routers
• High-speed processing ICs for high-quality, high-resolution images in digital cameras
• Newly emerging wearable technology, including processor-intensive VR headsets
• Multimedia equipment for the demanding consumer market. Including tablets and HDTVs.

ASICs have high performance and low unit cost because they are specialized for specific functions. However, it is necessary to consider whether the initial costs required for the development period and design prototyping can be recovered.

Principles of ASICs

Since semi-custom-designed ASICs are generally used, the following introduces the principles of gate-array and cell-based ASICs.

1. Gate Array Type ASICs

Gate-array ASICs use existing silicon wafers as far as the interconnect stage process in the semiconductor manufacturing process and customize the interconnects according to the application in the interconnect process. Since only the wiring circuit layout is designed during development, this method can reduce development costs and time. 

2. Cell-Based ASICs

Cell-based ASICs utilize a tailored methodology to accommodate the circuits in ICs at all stages of the masking process. This includes the customized integration of transistor elements, resistors, and capacitors in the semiconductor manufacturing process. Design optimization is possible, allowing for a very high degree of freedom and creating ASICs with good performance. However, the cost and time required for development are higher than those of the gate array type.

Other Information on ASICs

ASIC mining refers to the use of ASICs for crypto assets (formerly known as virtual currency.) In the world of crypto assets, a process called mining (excavation) is required to secure every crypto asset transaction.

Mining uses hash functions to search for different values, and mining is successful when a particular value is met. The sequence of calculations is enormous, and only a successful mining operation can authorize the transaction of a cryptographic asset. ASIC mining is used for these mathematically intensive calculations.

1. Requirements for ASIC Miners

Devices equipped with dedicated ASICs, in which the algorithms for executing hash functions are compiled into circuits or IC chips, are called ASIC miners. The ASIC mining process requires an enormous amount of arithmetic processing, which is also referred to as hash power.

The power required to support this hash power is a topic of much debate around the world in the context of recent environmental issues. Therefore, there are high expectations for further improvements in the high-speed computing characteristics, smaller size, and lower power consumption of ASICs. 

2. Development Period and Cost of ASICs

The development period for ASICs is generally longer than FPGAs and processors. The reason for this is that integrated circuits need to be designed individually for each specialized application, and circuits and layouts cannot be modified after masks are issued. The most important factors affecting development time and man-hours are the number of prototypes and the optimization of characteristics.

However, the advantage of ASIC chips over FPGAs is that they have superior characteristics and lower manufacturing costs compared to FPGAs since ASICS are designed specifically for particular functions.

What Is a Screw Driving Machine?

A screw-driving machine is a device that partly or fully automates the screw fastening process in factory assembly and other processes.

Machine screw fastening is faster and more accurate than manual fastening because of the automated control of position and torque. There are three main types of screw-tightening machines, as follows:

• Handheld Type: Hand-held screw-tightening machines are used for screw tightening.
• Automatic Screw Tightening Type: The screw tightening machine adjusts its position by moving its axis and performs the screw tightening operation.
• Robot Type: Screw fastening is performed by manipulating a robot arm.

Uses of Screw Driving Machines

Screw-driving machines are used in factory assembly processes to automate, ensure quality, and improve work efficiency. Typical applications include screw fastening in automated assembly processes for home appliances and installation of factory equipment.

The appropriate screw fastener should be selected based on the degree of automation of the process and the complexity of the screw fastening operation. Below is an explanation of appropriate screw-diving machines according to their intended use.

• Simple manual screw fastening: Use a handheld model to perform hand-held fastening.
• Simple screw tightening with automated operation: Use an automatic screw tightening model with an adjustment function.
• For complex screw tightening with robot operation: Use a robot model that increases efficiency through automation.

Principle of Screw Driving Machines

Screw-driving machines consist of a control unit, a motor that produces torque, and a part that is a tool to be fitted into the screw hole.

Automatic screw-tightening models have additional equipment for parts and other tools to move around the shaft, and robot models require an additional robot arm. Most screw-tightening machines have a torque measuring device as an integral part of the equipment, while automatic screw-tightening and robot models often have a screw feeder as an integral part of the equipment.

1. Handy Models

Screw tightening is performed by placing a bit on a screw hole and pressing the operation button, and the screw is tightened by rotation of the motor. The type equipped with a torque measuring device automatically stops the screw tightening operation when the tightening is completed, thereby reducing unnecessary load on the screw and the screw tightening target. 

2. Automatic Screw Tightening Models

The operation during screw tightening is the same as the handy type of screw-driving machine, but the bit part moves via the shaft to the screw-tightening target for screw tightening. The degree of freedom of movement depends on the number of axes, and if the axes can rotate, screw tightening from diagonal directions is also possible.

3. Robot Models

The operation during screw tightening is the same as that of the handy and automatic screw tightening types of machines. The robot arm is used to move the bit to the screw fastening point. By lifting the screw fastening object and moving the screw fastening part to the direction where the bit is located, the robot type can fasten screws on surfaces that are not possible with the automatic screw fastening type. Freedom of movement is provided by the use of a robot arm, enabling complex screw fastening and many screw fastening operations in a short time.

Other Information on Screw Driving Machines

Advantages and Features of Screw Driving Machines

1. Handy Type
The advantage of the handy type of screw-driving machine is to improve work efficiency and quality in screw tightening. The tightening torque in screw tightening can be kept even, preventing loosening or damage due to excessive tightening. Screws are automatically fed to the tip of the driver, and tightening can be done with only one hand at a specified torque, making it possible to tighten dozens of screws per minute.

2. Automatic Screw Tightening Type
The merit of the automatic screw tightening type of machine is that it can accurately tighten even very small screws, which is difficult to do manually, making it possible to tighten more types of screws more efficiently. As a feature, the fastening part moves via a shaft, allowing for easy adjustment and effortless screw tightening.

3. Robot Type
The merit of the robot type of screw-driving machine is that it can control the amount of torque, rotation, and screw advance, thereby reducing quality defects in screw tightening, and it is also effective in preventing forgetting to tighten screws because the same operation is repeated automatically. The type and size of screws can be selected, and screw tightening conditions can be set according to the workpiece to be assembled. Since there is no variation in speed, productivity is increased and the daily assembly quantity can be increased.

What Is a Spray Fluxer?

A spray fluxer is a device used in automated soldering equipment to apply flux, an accelerator that enhances solder spread during the soldering process. This process is crucial for the quality of electronic components and circuit boards.

With the advent of automated soldering equipment, the use of spray fluxers has become integral for achieving high precision and efficiency in flux application, significantly reducing labor costs and improving productivity.

Uses of Spray Fluxers

Spray fluxers are employed alongside automated soldering equipment to enhance soldering quality. While solder containing flux is available, the flux tends to evaporate near the solder’s melting point. Since the solder bath in automated equipment is maintained at high temperatures, using solder with integrated flux is impractical. Instead, flux is precisely applied using a spray fluxer.

Principle of Spray Fluxers

Spray fluxers apply flux to clean the board surface of foreign matter and oxide films, reducing surface tension and enabling the molten solder to spread thinly. Flux, primarily composed of pine resin (rosin) with additives like zinc chloride or ammonium chloride, activates around 338°F (170°C), aiding in the removal of copper oxides.

Types of Spray Fluxers

There are two main application methods for spray fluxers: foaming and spraying.

Foaming Method

The foaming method immerses the substrate in foamed flux, ensuring a substantial flux application. However, it requires a significant amount of flux and solvent, making it costlier.

Spray Method

The spray method atomizes flux for a thin, even application, reducing waste by using flux only as needed. Due to its cost-effectiveness and convenience, it’s the preferred method in many fluxers.

Other Information on Spray Fluxers

Application Amount

The application amount of spray fluxers varies by manufacturer, significantly impacting solder quality. The spray method minimizes waste, making it ideal for applying pre-flux on the solder flow surface to enhance adhesion in the solder bath.

Technological Innovation Issues

Spray fluxers face challenges in ensuring even application, control linearity, and repeatability stability. Manufacturers conduct extensive testing to meet these conditions, which remains a significant technological challenge in electronic board mounting.

Structure

A spray fluxer consists of a nozzle and sprayer, atomizing and applying flux uniformly across the substrate. Regular cleaning is required, but it offers uniform application and easy control of film thickness, making the spray type superior in quality.

What Are EMC Countermeasure Components?

EMC countermeasure components are electronic components used for noise suppression in electrical equipment that handle signals.

Compatibility refers to the unwanted electrical noise (emissions) emitted by an electronic device without causing significant electromagnetic disturbance to other objects in the environment, and its ability to function in a given electromagnetic environment with low susceptibility to interference (immunity or susceptibility).

Emission is called EMI (electro-magnetic interference) and immunity is called EMS (electro-magnetic susceptibility), and a variety of electronic components have been developed to address these issues.

Applications of EMC Countermeasure Components

We are surrounded by many electronic devices, each of which handles electromagnetic signals and waves. If EMC countermeasures are not taken properly, some of them may malfunction, switch on without permission, or cause communication problems.

EMC countermeasure components are especially used in communication devices such as computers, mobile devices, smartphones, many home appliances, inverters, and other devices that perform actions involving signal conversion.

EMC has its own standards depending on the equipment used, for example, emissions from electric lighting, emissions from multimedia equipment, immunity of multimedia equipment, medical electrical equipment, ships, automobiles, etc.

Principle of EMC Countermeasure Components

EMC countermeasure components can be roughly divided into three categories.

Frequency Separation

If the expected noise components are on the high-frequency side, LPF (low pass filter) is effective to cut them. It functions as a filter by incorporating coils, beads, and resistors in series with the signal input and capacitors in parallel. An AC power line filter that combines a capacitor and a common mode filter is also used. 

Mode Separation

When either the common mode, in which the signal is sent in the same direction to the paired lines, or the differential (normal) mode, in which the signal is sent in a different direction, is a noise component, it is effective to separate these two modes. In most cases, the common mode is an unwanted component, so components are used to attenuate it. For example, a CMF (common mode filter), ferrite core, or transmission transformer is placed in parallel with the signal.

Amplitude Separation

Noise can appear as a sudden phenomenon. Varistors and Zener diodes are incorporated in parallel to prevent transient changes in voltage, especially due to electrostatic effects as noise. These are elements whose resistance value changes depending on the voltage.

Other Information on EMC Countermeasure Components

EMC Design

EMC design, or design to satisfy EMC, has two main purposes: first, to reduce the noise output of EMI, the noise output level (commonly called emissions) emitted by electronic equipment with respect to electromagnetic noise, or EMC, which is called the electromagnetic compatibility of electronic equipment.

The second is a noise tolerance design for EMS (commonly called immunity), which is the level of noise that an electronic device can withstand without malfunction or abnormal conditions even if it accepts noise. EMC design is to ensure that both of these aspects of the electronic equipment are sufficiently satisfied with the various standards, laws, and regulations for the electrical products in which the equipment is installed.

The actual EMC design includes: EMI filters, consisting of X capacitors and line filters to reduce normal line noise between power lines; ground capacitors (commonly known as Y capacitors) to reduce common noise between ground and ground. In addition, ferrite cores, ferrite beads, common mode choke coils, electromagnetic wave absorbing sheets, and varistors and surge absorbers that clamp and remove external noise voltages, such as lightning are used in many electronic devices.

Lightning Surge Countermeasure Components

Lightning surge countermeasure components are used to prevent electronic equipment from malfunctioning or breaking due to lightning. Normally, the electromagnetic compatibility, or EMC, of electronic equipment, or the amount of electromagnetic noise emitted and the immunity to electromagnetic noise, is determined by the EMC standards for each device in which the electronic equipment is installed.

Among the above-mentioned electromagnetic noise emission and immunity standards, lightning surge countermeasure components are mounted to increase immunity to EMS standards, commonly known as immunity to noise, and especially to lightning surge tests.

The usage of surge absorbers, such as varistors and surge arresters, is to be connected to the ground in combination with a grounding capacitor, etc., in an electric circuit to release high-energy noise, including lightning coming from outside, to the ground (earth), thereby protecting electronic equipment from high-voltage It plays a role in protecting electronic equipment from high voltage and destruction by allowing lightning and other high-energy noise from outside to escape to ground (earth).

What Is a Tactile Sensor?

A tactile sensor is a sensor that mimics the human sense of touch.

The sensing device used is a sensor that converts the pressure and vibration of a contact surface into an electrical signal, and various technological efforts, including those around sensor technology, are underway to mimic the function of this sensor to the human sense of touch. In addition, tactile sensors are integrated with multiple pieces of information, such as temperature sensitivity, to estimate the texture of sensitive objects.

The sense of touch is essential for the development of robotics technology because it plays an important role not only in evaluating the properties and texture of objects but also in basic human movements, such as grasping objects with appropriate force and writing with a pen in one’s hand.

Uses of Applications of Tactile Sensors

Tactile sensors are used in medical diagnostics, robotics, and industrial applications.

Recently, however, the application to the game space represented by VR (virtual reality) and the metaverse field is also highly expected under the generic name of haptics, a tactile technology.

1. Medical Applications of Tactile Sensors

The ability to evaluate the hardness of an object makes it possible to detect the presence of “lumps” originating from breast or prostate cancer with high sensitivity, contributing to the early detection of cancer. In addition, by evaluating roughness caused by surface roughness, it can be used for quantitative evaluation of dermatitis and xerosis.

2. Application of Tactile Sensors in Robotics

In robotics, the development of finger-mimicking sensors provides information for adjusting grip strength as sensors for robotic hands.

3. Industrial Application of Tactile Sensors

In industry, monitoring the texture of products can be useful for quality control. 

4. Haptics for VR

In the world of VR (virtual reality), goggles for 3D have already been commercialized, and applications to reproduce a more realistic world in VR by attaching a suit or gloves to the VR and installing tactile sensors are being worked on. 

Principle of Tactile Sensors

Tactile sensors use various physical phenomena to convert the force of contact with an object into an electrical quantity, and are composed mainly of conversion devices (sensors: elements). These electrical signals are analyzed via signal and information processing circuits. In principle, the sensor can employ a variety of detection modalities.

For example, one method is to detect the electrostatic capacitance resulting from changes caused by the application of pressure in a space sandwiched by conductive Depending on the application, piezoelectric ceramic elements (PZT: lead zirconate titanate) are generally used as the sensor element in many cases. Piezoelectric ceramic elements, also called piezoelectric elements, produce voltage changes when pressure is applied. This is called the piezoelectric effect.

The arrangement of ions in the solid crystal of a piezoelectric element changes when pressure is applied, causing a phenomenon called electric polarization, in which one end of the crystal is charged with positive electricity and the other with negative electricity. The pressure information and vibration frequency information are converted into electrical signals by the piezoelectric element, which can then be converted into tactile information through analog and digital processing circuits composed of ASICs and other devices.

In addition, as an optical principle, the contact position of an object on the sensor surface can be captured by detecting changes in the scattered light in the optical waveguide inside the sensor.

Other Information on Tactile Sensors

1. Tactile Sensor Market

The market size of tactile sensors is projected to reach $16,083.8 million by 2025 from $8,204.9 million in 2019.

Tactile sensors are one of the key elements supporting the development of robots that can work with humans. For example, a robot called RoCycle, which is being developed at MIT in the US, has a Tactile Sensor built into its hand that identifies materials so that it can recognize and sort paper, plastic, and metal.

At the Pohang University of Technology in Korea, a human fingerprint sensor is being developed using nano springs that can sense minute pressure and vibration. The results of the development include a machine learning analysis of the information obtained from the tactile sensor and the successful differentiation of eight types of fibers with an accuracy of 99.8%. As the accuracy of tactile sensors improves, demand for these sensors is expected to increase, especially in the robotics industry.

2. MEMS Tactile Sensor

MEMS (micro electromechanical systems) is a device in which sensors, electronic circuits, etc. are integrated on a substrate using micro-fabrication technology.

In recent years, ultra-sensitive tactile sensors using MEMS technology have been attracting attention.

3. Expansion Into the Field of Haptics

In addition to the world of VR, haptics is expanding its application to various familiar fields. Examples include home buttons on smartphone screens, navigation systems on the instrument panels of electric vehicles, styluses for electronic authentication, and PC keyboards.

In these fields, how small, lightweight, thin, and realistic tactile sensors can be realized is critical in terms of tactile technology. Therefore, manufacturers are working hard to develop cutting-edge MEMS technology, piezoelectric device technology, and application software.

What Is a Length Measuring Machine?

A length-measuring machine is, as the name implies, a device for measuring length.

Currently, length is defined by the distance light travels in unit time, based on the speed of light. There are two methods of measuring length: direct and indirect.

• Direct Method
  This is a method of measuring length by comparing it to a standard length or scale using a commonly used ruler, tape measure, caliper, micrometer, etc.
• Indirect Method
  This is a method of measuring length by using other physical quantities related to length or by using electrical or optical methods.

In most cases, length can be measured by the direct method, but in the case of long structures or objects on the order of microns, the indirect method is used because it is difficult to prepare a standard length (scale). The indirect method is also used when the object is complicated in shape, inaccessible, or not allowed to be touched.

Uses of Length Measuring Machines

Length-measuring machines are used in a variety of fields, and the best one should be selected for each application. The types are as follows:

• A few millimeters to several tens of millimeters and small enough to fit in the palm of your hand or on a tabletop: e.g., rulers and calipers
• Several hundred millimeters to several meters long and rather large: e.g., tape measures, etc.
• Micrometers for microscopic observation of the finished product with an accuracy on the order of microns
• Out in the field, several meters to several tens of meters: e.g., optical methods (triangulation, laser length meter) measuring fine irregularities in precision industrial products such as lenses or semiconductor wafers (laser interferometry)
• In technologies such as X-ray CT: applied for measurements inside objects that are inaccessible by light or stylus
• In the nanotechnology industry: which requires measurements at the nanometer level, scanning electron microscopy is applied in this way

As a handy application, length measurement methods based on image analysis are also being developed, such as the recent development of an application for measuring length from a smartphone camera.

Principle of Length Measuring Machines

The meter is defined as the length that light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second. The metric prototype based on this is the standard for length. In principle, the direct method is a comparison to this metric standard.

A measurement principle based on the definition of length is to measure the time of flight (ToF) of light. Since light is very fast, sophisticated electronic technology is required. Many laser-type instruments now commonly use a measurement method based on the phase difference between the intensity-modulated incident light and the reflected light.

By definition, this is the behavior of light in a vacuum, so in practice, it must be corrected for the refractive index of air. Laser interferometry uses the phenomenon of interference between laser beams.

By analyzing the interference fringes produced when the reflected light from the reference surface interferes with the reflected light from the measurement surface for the same laser irradiation, the distance of the measurement surface from the reference surface can be measured on the nm order. We have exemplified several length measuring instruments, but there are numerous other methods.

Other Information on Length Measuring Machines

1. How to Use Length Measuring Machines

The horizontal model employed by many length measuring machines consists of a bed, a reciprocating table with a built-in standard scale that moves on the bed, a measuring microscope that observes the standard scale, a measuring surface on which the specimen is placed under a constant measuring force, and a measuring table that supports the specimen to be measured. There are two types of horizontal length measuring instruments: one satisfies Abbe’s principle and the other satisfies Eppenstein’s principle.

In horizontal length measuring machines with a structure that satisfies Abbe’s principle, measurement is performed by placing the measurement axis of the specimen and the scale face of the standard scale on the same straight line so that measurement error due to angular deviation from the measurement axis line of the reciprocating table based on non-straightness of the bed is negligible.

On the other hand, in horizontal length measuring machines having a structure that satisfies the Eppenstein principle, to eliminate measurement errors due to the non-straightness of the bed, measurement is performed by configuring the machine so that the focal length of the objective lens for the standard scale is equal to the distance between the measurement axis of the specimen and the standard scale when they are separated, and by optically placing the focal plane of the lens on the standard scale. Measurement is performed by optically placing the focal plane of the lens on the standard scale. 

2. Laser Length Measuring Machines

Laser-length measuring machines irradiate a laser beam onto an object and use the reflected light to measure the distance of the object. Laser length measuring machines are called “displacement sensors” or “distance sensors” depending on the distance to be measured.

• Displacement Sensors
  Displacement sensors are length-measuring machines that measure short distances (tens to hundreds of millimeters) in microns.
• Distance Sensors
  These are length-measuring machines that measure long distances (several millimeters to several meters) in millimeters.

The two known measurement methods for length-measuring machines are the triangulation method and the time of flight (ToF) method.

Triangulation Method
This is a measurement method that uses the principle of triangulation based on reflected light and consists of a light emitter and a light receiver. A semiconductor laser is used as the light emitter. In the measurement method, a laser beam focused from the semiconductor laser through a projection lens is irradiated onto the specimen. A portion of the diffuse reflection of the laser light irradiated on the specimen forms a spot image on the photosensor through the light-receiving lens. By detecting and calculating the position of the imaged spot, the amount of displacement from the specimen can be measured.

A system that uses a CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) light-receiving element is called a CMOS system, while a system that uses a CCD (Charge Coupled Device) light-receiving element is called a CCD system.

Time of Flight (ToF)
This method measures the distance by measuring the time it takes for the irradiated light to reflect off the specimen and be received by the light-receiving part. There are two methods: the phase difference distance method, which uses the phase difference between the wavelength of the emitted light and the wavelength of the received light, and the pulse propagation method, which emits a laser beam with a fixed pulse width.

What Is a Fluorescence Microscope?

Fluorescence Microscope is a device to observe the fluorescence of fluorescent substances in an object by using laser light, super high-pressure mercury vapor lamp, or xenon lamp as a light source. In ordinary optical microscopes, visible light such as halogen lamps are used as a light source to irradiate an object and observe reflected light and transmitted light.

Fluorescence Microscope is a type of microscope that mainly targets biological tissues and cells labeled with fluorescent substances. Since the resolution of a microscope depends on the wavelength of the light used, Fluorescence Microscope, which uses light with a short wavelength, is characterized by its superior spatial and temporal resolution.

Therefore, highly quantitative information can be obtained. Fluorescence Microscope is becoming more and more important as its functions are becoming more sophisticated as confocal laser microscopy and multiphoton microscopy.

Applications of Fluorescence Microscope

Fluorescence Microscope is mainly used for bio-imaging. The specific targets are cells and tissues, which can be observed while alive. The following techniques are used in combination to label objects with fluorescence:

• Technology to fluorescently label specific proteins through genetic recombination or other means
• Labeling nucleic acids and other substances with fluorescently labeled chemicals
• Technology to express fluorescent proteins in specific cells

These technologies enable us to observe the localization of target proteins and expressed genes. In addition, drugs and proteins that emit fluorescence in response to specific substances have been developed, making it possible to visualize neural activity and intracellular dynamics of substances.

In recent years, the advent of CRISPR technology has made the creation of genetically modified organisms much easier, and the scope of its application is rapidly expanding.

Principle of Fluorescence Microscope

Fluorescence Microscope is an instrument for observing fluorescence. Fluorescence is emitted when a fluorescent substance absorbs specific light as energy (excitation light) and releases the energy again.

Exposure to excitation light causes rapid emission of light. The wavelength of fluorescence is longer than the wavelength of the excitation light, and these wavelengths vary with the fluorescent material. Fluorescence Microscope has a filter unit to observe specific fluorescence, which consists of:

• A filter that transmits the excitation light from the light source
• A filter that transmits the emitted fluorescence
• A mirror to prevent interference of the excitation light with the fluorescence

By changing or combining filter units, various fluorescent materials can be observed from the same specimen.

Other Information on Fluorescence Microscope

1. Resolution of Fluorescence Microscope

Figure 1. Resolution of fluorescence microscope

The resolution of a microscope refers to “the minimum distance at which two close points can be distinguished from different points. Microscopes use lenses to magnify and observe objects, and in principle, it is possible to increase the magnification infinitely by combining lenses.

However, in the case of optical microscopes, which use light to observe samples, the limit of resolution is approximately half the wavelength of light due to diffraction, which is a characteristic of light. This was considered the theoretical limit of microscope resolution, but a technology was developed that broke through this limit, and the developer was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2014.

The technique is called “super-resolution microscopy. Until the development of super-resolution microscopy, the resolution limit of Fluorescence Microscope was approximately 250 nm, but with super-resolution microscopy, the resolution can be as high as 15-100 nm, which is close to that of electron microscopy. Super-resolution microscopy achieves high resolution by using various techniques to avoid the limiting factors of resolution.

Super-resolution microscopy methods that have dramatically improved resolution and won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry include “PALM” and “STED”. PALM and STED have achieved breakthroughs in Fluorescence Microscope resolution by utilizing special optics and special dyes. Super-resolution microscopes using various other technologies have been produced and are being commercialized by various companies.

2. Advantages of Fluorescence Microscope

Figure 2. Objects that can be observed with a fluorescence microscope

The advantage of Fluorescence Microscope is that you can observe the behavior of molecules and the structure of cells in detail as visual information. By using the appropriate Fluorescence Microscope for your purpose, you can observe objects with high temporal and spatial resolution.

It is also possible to observe an object using multiple dyes. For example, when two different proteins are labeled with red and green fluorescent substances and observed, a yellow area indicates that these two proteins may exist in the same location in the cell.

A variety of fluorescence materials and Fluorescence Microscopes have been developed for different purposes and applications, and are becoming increasingly important in life science and clinical research.

What Is a Laser Diode?

A laser diode is a device that uses a semiconductor mechanism known as recombination emission. The word “laser” is an acronym for  “Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation”, where radiation is light.

The color of the laser is determined by the elements that make up the semiconductor. Some lasers operate at room temperature, while others require cooling, depending on the resonator structure and output power.

The difference between laser diodes and LEDs is that laser diodes meet the requirements for laser oscillation. Variations in wavelength and amplitude of the light are much smaller in laser diodes as well.

Uses of Laser Diodes

Laser diodes (LDs) are widely used in consumer information equipment because of their small size, low power consumption, and low cost. They’re also lightweight, efficient, and highly reliable.

They are used in barcode readers, in optical pickups for optical drives such as CDs, DVDs, and BDs, copiers, laser printers, and optical fiber-based communication devices. High-power laser beams are also used in laser markers and laser processing machines.

The diffusion-resistant and long-distance reach of laser light makes them suitable for use in surveying instruments and laser pointers for pointing at objects. Because they emit coherent light, they are ideal for leveling and alignment applications. 

Principles of Laser Diodes

In laser diodes, coherent light is emitted by the recombination of holes (“holes” here means spaces from which electrons have been released) and electrons when a voltage is applied.

The emitted photon causes another electron to recombine with the hole one after another, emitting photons, so that the generated light has the same phase and wavelength. Since the wavelength of the light is always constant, it is used in barcode readers, laser pointers, fiber-optic communications, and other applications requiring a constant amount of light.

Other Information on Laser Diodes

1. Laser Diode Specifications

The L/I curve is used to understand laser diodes specifications. This curve allows us to keep track of the drive current supplied by the light intensity output.

This curve is used to determine the operating point (drive current at rated emission output) and threshold current (starting current of laser oscillation) at the laser and is also used to determine the current required to obtain high output power at a particular current.

By reading this curve chart, one can see that optical output depends greatly on temperature, and that as temperature increases, laser parameters decrease. This makes it possible to visualize and estimate the efficiency of laser diodes by incorporating the L/I curve.

2. Laser Diodes Vs. Light-Emitting Diodes

While both are classed as electro-electronic components, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have disparate phases, so light rays are diffused radially; in contrast, laser diodes are in phase with each other, resulting in a linear beam of light. The light emitted by a laser is also monochromatic, meaning it’s a bright, single-colored emission. Moreover, laser light is stimulated to emit coherently and efficiently, while light-emitting diodes utilize the electro-luminance effect, which is inferior.

Therefore, light-emitting diodes have an unfavorable characteristic in that their emitted light won’t easily enter a fiber with a small core system due to the wide surface of the light-emitting layer. On the other hand, laser diodes have a narrow emitting layer, making it easy for the light to enter a fiber with a small core system.

And since laser diodes emit photons by colliding every emitted photon with another atom, the light produced is coherent and the light beam is monochromatic. In contrast, the light produced by a light-emitting diode is incoherent and the emitted light consists of various colors.

3. Laser Diode Lifetime

The average life expectancy of laser diodes varies depending on the operating environment (operating temperature, static electricity, power surges) and is generally between 10,000 and 50,000 hours.

The following section discusses operating temperature as a variable among the environmental factors that affect the average life of LDs.

Operating temperature is said to reduce life expectancy by half when the operating temperature rises by 10°C. If the operating temperature continues to rise above the maximum operating temperature, then laser diodes are more likely to be damaged and their long-term performance degraded. The degradation rate at operating temperatures increases exponentially with the operating temperature.

Therefore, the use of heat sinks (radiating plates) is recommended to reduce the effects of operating temperature and to increase luminous output. Heat sinks dissipate the thermal energies generated by power electro-electronic components. Passive cooling is one solution, but active cooling devices are available. These include air-cooling and water-cooling mechanisms.

What Is an EMC Countermeasure Component?

EMC (Electromagnetic Compatibility) countermeasure component devices are electronic components used for noise suppression in electrical equipment that handle signals. They’re essentially used to electronically separate a desired signal from noise. Once separated, the signal can be processed and manipulated. However, this signal-noise separation is not something that can be guaranteed if the electronic wave has been “contaminated” by unwanted signal dissonance.

Electromagnetic compatibility design has become something of a major issue Since all electronic components have the potential to leak unwanted electromagnetic field noise, no matter how well-designed they might be. Compatibility refers to unwanted electrical noise (emissions) that is emitted and propagated by an electronic device without causing any significant electromagnetic disturbance to other objects in the environment. In addition, it can further be described as the ability to function in a given electromagnetic environment with low susceptibility to interference (immunity).

Emissions are technically referred to as EMI (electromagnetic interference) and immunity as EMS (electromagnetic susceptibility). A variety of electronic components has been developed to address these issues. Here, several exotic solutions to neutralize high and low-frequency noise types are utilized. Ranging from inductor coils to capacitor filtering, several highly effective countermeasures are listed as follows.

Uses of EMC Countermeasure Components

EMCs are surrounded by many electronic devices, each of which inevitably experiences the impact of noisy electromagnetic signals and waves. If EMC countermeasure components are not properly taken, malfunctioning, switching without permission, or interference with communications might occur.

EMC countermeasure components are especially used in communication devices such as computers, mobile devices, smartphones, many home appliances, inverters, and other devices that perform actions involving signal conversion. However, as frequency bands change, more capable solutions are being explored.

EMC has its standards depending on the equipment used. For example, emissions from electric lighting, emissions from communications systems, emissions from multimedia equipment, immunity of multimedia equipment, medical electrical equipment, ships, automobiles, etc.

Principle of EMC Countermeasure Components

EMC countermeasure components can be roughly divided into three categories.

1. Frequency Separation

It functions as a filter by incorporating coils, beads, and resistors in series with the signal input and capacitors in parallel. An AC power line filter that combines a capacitor and a common mode filter is also used. If the expected noisy components are on the high-frequency side, an LPF (low pass filter) effectively cuts them.

2. Mode Separation

Either the common mode or normal mode can be effectively separated. The common mode describes a situation whereby the signal is sent in the same direction to the paired lines, while the normal (differential) mode describes a situation whereby the signal is sent in a different direction. In most cases, the common mode is an unwanted component, so components are used to attenuate it. For example, a CMF (common mode filter), ferrite core, or transmission transformer is placed in parallel with the signal.

3. Amplitude Separation

Noise can appear as a sudden phenomenon. Varistors and Zener diodes are incorporated in parallel to prevent transient changes in voltage, especially due to electrostatic effects such as noise. These are elements, whose resistance value changes, depending on the voltage.

Other Information related to EMC Countermeasure Components

1. EMC Design

EMC design has two main purposes. The first purpose is to reduce the noise output level (commonly called emissions) emitted by electronic equipment concerning electromagnetic noise, or EMC, which is called the electromagnetic compatibility of electronic equipment. The second purpose is to reduce EMI noise, the noise output level (commonly called emissions) emitted by electronic equipment.

The second is a noise tolerance design for EMS (commonly called immunity), which is the level of noise that an electronic device can withstand without malfunctioning even if it accepts noise. EMC design ensures that both of these circuit architecture aspects of the electronic equipment are sufficiently satisfied with the various standards, laws, and regulations for the electrical products in which the equipment is installed.

The actual EMC design includes: EMI filters, consisting of X capacitors and line filters to reduce normal line noise between power lines; ground capacitors (commonly known as Y capacitors) to reduce common ground noise; ferrite cores, ferrite beads, and common mode choke coils;  In addition, ferrite cores, ferrite beads, common mode choke coils, electromagnetic wave absorbing sheets, and varistors and surge absorbers that clamp and remove external noise voltages such as lightning are used in many electronic devices.

2. Lightning Surge Countermeasure Components

Lightning surge countermeasure components are used to prevent electronic equipment from malfunctioning or breaking due to lightning. Normally, the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) of electronic equipment, or the amount of electromagnetic noise emitted and the immunity to electromagnetic noise are determined by the EMC standards for each device in which the electronic equipment is installed.

Among the above-mentioned electromagnetic noise emission and immunity standards, lightning surge countermeasure components are mounted to increase immunity to EMS standards, commonly known as immunity to noise, and especially to lightning surge tests.

The usage of surge absorbers, such as varistors and surge arresters, is to be connected to the ground in combination with a grounding capacitor, etc., in an electric circuit. Their role is to release high-energy noise, including lightning coming from outside, to the ground (earth), thereby protecting electronic equipment from high-voltage damage. They play an important role in protecting electronic equipment from dangerous high-voltage charges and destruction by allowing lightning and other high-energy noise from outside to escape to the ground (earth).