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What Is a Robot?

A robot is a machine that performs tasks in place of humans.

The number of sensors, including visual, force, and infrared sensors, is endless, and there are a wide variety of products in the world that are defined as robots.

Types of Robots

As mentioned above, there are a wide variety of products defined as robots, so here we introduce some of the most common types.

1. Mobile Robots

Mobile robots are robots that transport objects unmanned in factories, etc. They are sometimes called AGVs (Automatic Guided Vehicles). They are equipped with wheels and carry loads to perform transportation tasks within a factory. AGVs can be equipped with cameras to automatically recognize obstacles and avoid them, or they can trace a line.

2. Pick-And-Place Robot

A pick-and-place robot is a robot that picks up an object and places it in a fixed position. It is often implemented with SCARA robots, Cartesian robots, and palletizer robots, and can be combined with vision systems to perform random picking.

3. Cooperative Robot

This term refers to robots that work in cooperation with humans. They are equipped with vision systems, force detection systems, etc., and can stop or slow down their movements when they detect an impact on humans, thus working without harming humans.

Advantages of Introducing Robots into Factories

When robots are introduced into a factory, it is possible to automate simple tasks such as picking up and placing things that were previously performed by workers.

In the past, it was common to automate these simple tasks using NC devices. However, due to reasons such as the scale of the facility being too large and NC devices not being versatile, attention has focused on the use of various types of robots, including vertically articulated robots and cooperative robots.

These robots are capable of complex movements, making it possible for them to perform various tasks in place of workers while saving space.

What Is a Switch?

A switch is a component or device that switches function of a circuit, switching it’s position from on and off.

How a Switch Works

The mechanism of a switch in an electric circuit is that the position of the contact point changes when a button is pressed or a lever is pulled down, and the circuit is switched or interrupted when the contact points in the electric circuit are connected or separated.

Example of a Household Light Switch

In a two-story house, a light switch is installed next to the staircase connecting the first and second floors, and the light can be switched on and off at either end. Here is a brief explanation of how this works. The assumption is that the switches on the first and second floors both have contacts that connect to Circuit A or Circuit B.

• If both the first and second floor switches are connected to Circuit A, the current can travel around Circuit A and the light will turn on.
• If either the first or second floor is connected to Circuit A and either to Circuit B, the circuit will be interrupted and the light will turn off.
• If both first and second floors are connected to Circuit B, the current can travel around Circuit B and the light will turn on.

Thus, switches can switch the mode of operation of a facility or turn lights on and off by switching which circuit carries the current or interrupts the current.

Types of Switches

There are various types of switches, some of which are listed below according to the type of switching method.

1. Push-Button Switch

The circuit is connected only when it is pushed in, and when the finger is released, the spring returns to shut off the circuit.

2. Seesaw Switch

Push in the protruding end to switch the circuit. This type of switch is often used for home lighting. It is sometimes called a rocker switch.

3. Toggle Switch

A toggle switch is mainly used to switch between on and off by pulling down the lever. Most commonly installed in the driver’s cabs of trains and airplanes.

4. Rotary Switch

Rotating the knob switches the circuit. Used to switch between multiple modes, adjust speed, etc.

What Is a Capacitor?

A capacitor is an electronic component that can store and release electricity. It consists of an insulator sandwiched between two metal plates facing each other. When voltage is applied to the capacitor, charge is transferred, but because the two metal plates are separated by an insulator, the charge that has nowhere else to go is stored in the metal plate. This allows the capacitor to function like a charged battery.

Although often confused with batteries in terms of storage and discharge, batteries basically convert electrical energy via chemical reactions, whereas capacitors can directly store electric charge without such a conversion process, and thus can repeat extremely fast charge and discharge.

Capacitors can be incorporated into power supply circuits and repeatedly charged and discharged to buffer rapid voltage changes and provide stable voltage application.

Capacitors also have the characteristic of allowing high-frequency alternating currents to pass through them easily, which can be used to eliminate noise, cut DC components, and play other roles as a filter.

Types of Capacitors

There are various types of capacitors, each with different characteristics.

1. Ceramic Capacitor

Ceramic capacitors use ceramic as the dielectric and are characterized by high heat resistance and excellent frequency characteristics, making them suitable for use in digital circuits. Ceramic capacitors are mainly made of metal oxides such as titanium dioxide. They are small in size and have excellent heat resistance, but also have the disadvantage of being easily broken.

2. Electrolytic Capacitor

Electrolytic capacitors use an electrolyte made of aluminum or other metals. Two metal surfaces are oxidized by chemical reaction. The oxide film does not conduct electricity, so it is used as an insulator. It is characterized by high capacitance, but if the positive and negative values are mistaken, there is a risk of heat generation.

3. Film Capacitor

A film capacitor uses plastic film as the dielectric. They are suitable for audio equipment, etc., because their capacitance fluctuates little due to temperature changes and can be controlled with a high degree of accuracy. In the case of DC power supply, it maintains high insulation, but in AC power supply, impedance varies with frequency through current. It is often used as a noise suppressor.

4. Variable Capacitor

While other capacitors have a fixed capacitance, a variable capacitor can achieve various capacitances with a single capacitor. It is suitable for tuning circuits of receivers such as radios. There are various types of variable capacitors, such as those whose capacitance can be continuously changed by turning a knob, and those whose capacitance can be switched between multiple fixed capacitors with a switch.

Properties of Capacitors

When a dry cell battery is connected to a capacitor, the electrons on the metal plate on the positive pole side move to the positive pole of the dry cell battery, so the metal plate is charged positively. When the voltage between the metal plates becomes the same as the voltage of the dry cell, the electrons stop moving and an electric charge is stored on the metal plates. This storage of electric charge is called a capacitor, and the storage of electric charge on a metal plate is called charging.

Until the charge is stored and the movement of electrons stops, an electric current flows for a moment. In other words, when a DC power source is connected to a capacitor, current flows only at first, and then it stops flowing. When the dry cell is removed in this state, a charge is stored in the metal plate.

The charge stored in the capacitor is called capacitance and is represented by the symbol C and the unit F (farad). Capacitance is proportional to the area of the metal plates and the inductance of the inductance between the metals. It is inversely proportional to the distance between the metal plates.

Capacitor and AC

When AC is applied to a capacitor, it continues to charge and discharge repeatedly. In a DC power supply, the current stops when the storage is completed, but in AC, the current continues to flow continuously.

This does not mean that current is passing between the metal plates, but it is apparently flowing. And the faster the current changes direction (the higher the frequency), the easier it is for the current to flow.

What Is a Printer?

A printer is a device that prints text, images, and other information by fixing ink, toner, or other recording media on paper or alternative recording surfaces.

Types of printers

Printers can be broadly classified into two types: analog and digital.

Analog printers, like rotary presses and pad printers, apply ink to a plate and print ink on the media. They are suitable for printing the same content in large quantities and at high speed.

On the other hand, digital printing is a method of printing without using a plate There are various types such as inkjet printers and electrophotographic printers, which are suitable for small lot and on-demand printing.

Printers are sometimes categorized into home-use, business-use, commercial printing, and industrial-use, depending on their applications.

Inkjet printers are the most common home-use printers. Business printers are mostly laser printers and inkjet printers. Commercial printers are used for printing flyers, brochures, etc., using relatively large printing machines called production printers. For industrial use, there are various types of printers depending on the application. The type recording media is not limited to paper, but also include a wide variety of materials such as metal, cloth, and plastic.

3D printing, a stereolithography technology, uses only a recording medium to create a three-dimensional object. Unlike injection molding or casting, where the material is poured into a mold, 3D printers are called printers because they directly create a three-dimensional object without using a mold.

UV printers are printers that use ultraviolet curable ink as the recording medium, and inkjet printers are mainly used. The number of UV printers has been increasing in recent years because of their ability to produce highly robust printing without the use of volatile solvents.

Printer Mechanism

In offset printing, ink applied to a plate is transferred to a cylindrical part called a rubber blanket, and then ink is transferred and fixed from the rubber blanket to paper.

In inkjet printing, the recording medium (ink) is ejected through small holes called nozzles and is imprinted on to the recording medium (e.g., paper). The principle of ejecting the recording medium is based on two main methods: the bubble jet method, in which ink is heated and foamed, and the piezo method, in which an ink chamber is deformed by a piezoelectric element and ink is ejected by the pressure generated at that time.

In electrophotography, toner is deposited on a material called a photosensitive drum, which is then transferred to and fixed on a recording medium such as paper. There are two types of electrophotographic systems: wet electrophotographic systems that use liquid toner and dry electrophotographic systems that use powdered toner.

What Is Observation Equipment?

Observation equipment is a generic term for equipment used to observe the state or change of an object.

In general, it refers to instruments such as microscopes, used to observe the microscopic form and structure of the surface and interior of an object. It may also refer to equipment used to continuously or periodically observe changes in an object.

Types of Observation Instruments

The microscope is a typical observation instrument.

There are various types of microscopes, but the term microscope simply refers to an optical microscope that illuminates an object and observes a magnified image.

Optical microscopes are classified into two types: transmission microscopes (biological microscopes), which use illumination transmitted through a sample, and reflection microscopes (industrial microscopes), which use illumination reflected from a sample.

Fluorescence microscopes are used to observe the fluorescence emitted by a sample, measuring microscopes are used to measure the length and coordinates of an object, and laser microscopes, confocal microscopes, and shape analysis laser microscopes use laser beams as their light source. Binocular stereomicroscopes, which enable three-dimensional observation of an object, are also classified as optical microscopes, and are used for surgery and autopsies in the medical field and for assembly and inspection in the manufacturing field.

While optical microscopes use light to form magnified images, electron microscopes use electron beams to visualize finer structures than optical microscopes. X-ray microscopes, ultrasonic microscopes, and infrared microscopes use X-rays, ultrasound, and infrared rays to nondestructively observe not only the surface but also the internal structure of specimens, while CT scanners and X-ray CT systems are used to create 3D images from X-ray microscope images.

Unlike the above-mentioned microscopes, scanning probe microscopes use mechanical and electromagnetic interactions between the sample and the probe to observe the sample by tracing it with a needle-like thin probe. There are several types of scanning tunneling microscopes (STM) and atomic force microscopes (AFM), which are used for atomic-level observations in a wide range of fields.

Types of Observation Instruments

Microscopes are optical microscopes with digital camera functions. There are blood flow scopes, handheld scopes, fiberscopes, etc., and they are used for different purposes.

What Is Measuring Equipment?

Measuring equipment is a generic term for equipment used to quantitatively measure physical quantities of objects.

Instruments that assist in measurement may also be classified as measuring instruments, such as ultracentrifuges that use centrifugal force to separate liquids and oscilloscopes.

Instruments that display measurements may also be classified as measuring instruments, such as energy monitors.

Items used by measuring instruments to make measurements include contact sensors, lasers, scales, light, infrared, and inspection needles. Physical quantities measured include length, object surface roughness, temperature, radiation dose, roundness, and transmittance. Other quantities measured include the percentage of ions present and their concentration.

Measuring instruments vary in size, ranging from hand-held to as large as or larger than a person.

Some instruments are made of metal, which expands and contracts depending on temperature. To prevent expansion and contraction from interfering with measurements, some length measuring instruments must be stored at an acceptable temperature.

Uses of Measuring Instruments

Measuring instruments are used to measure physical quantities of products and objects to be measured, and to use the obtained data for countermeasures and analysis.

In the case of products, it is possible to use the data obtained in the manufacturing stage to take measures against defects. For example, the force a product is subjected to when it is actually used is measured and evaluated to determine if the product will fail or not. The data can be used to improve the product.

Oscilloscopes and other measuring instruments are used to make invisible things such as electric currents visible.

What Is a Diode?

A diode is an electronic component that allows current to flow in only one direction. The most common type is a PN-type diode consisting of an N-type semiconductor and a P-type semiconductor.

N-type semiconductors are semiconductors with an excess of electrons compared to the positive charge of the nucleus. The extra electrons are called free electrons, which move from the negative to the positive side when voltage is applied.

When voltage is applied to a PN junction diode so that the P side is positive and the N side is negative, the holes that have moved to the negative side and the electrons that have moved to the positive side meet at the PN junction surface, and the electrons on the N side and holes on the P side combine and both disappear.

For that amount of time, electrons are supplied to the N side from the power supply, and electrons flow out of the P side to produce a hole, resulting in current flow from the P side to the N side. Conversely, if a negative voltage is applied to the P side and a positive voltage to the N side, the holes will move to the negative side and the electrons to the positive side, both on the opposite side of the junction surface, and no current will flow.

This characteristic of a diode that allows current to flow one way is used as a switch or rectifier.

Types of Diodes

There are various types of diodes, but the following six main types exist:

• Rectifier diodes
• Switching diodes
• Zener diodes
• Photodiodes
• Schottky barrier diodes
• Light Emitting Diodes

1. Rectifier Diodes

A rectifier diode converts alternating current to direct current by allowing current to flow in one direction and not in another, depending on the direction of voltage.

2. Switching Diode

A diode that functions as a switch with a feature that allows current to flow in only one direction. Compared to rectifier diodes, switching diodes are characterized by a shorter time from the on state to the off state.

3. Zener Diode

When a reverse voltage is applied to a diode, no current flows, but when the reverse voltage exceeds a certain voltage (Zener voltage), current flows in the reverse direction. Because it maintains a constant voltage regardless of the magnitude of the current, a Zener diode is sometimes called a constant-voltage diode.

4. Photodiode

A photodiode is a diode in which a small current flows in a constant direction when illuminated by light. It works in the opposite way to a light-emitting diode (LED).

5. Schottky Barrier Diode

A diode with a structure consisting of an N-type semiconductor and a metal junction instead of a PN junction. The time from the on-state to the off-state is very short, and they are used for high-speed switching operations.

6. Light-Emitting Diode

These diodes are well known as LEDs. When a forward voltage is applied, electrons and holes combine and are annihilated at the PN bonding plane, and the difference in energy before and after this happens is emitted as light. The color of the emitted light differs depending on the compound that makes up the semiconductor.

Diode Characteristics

Diodes have a variety of electrical characteristics, including V-I characteristics, which express the relationship between applied voltage and flowing current, reverse recovery time from diode on to off, maximum values of forward and reverse voltage that can be applied, maximum allowable values of forward and reverse currents, and power loss.

It is important to select a diode with appropriate characteristics according to the environment and conditions in which it will be used, as well as the type of diode for the application.

How to Use Diodes

Diodes are used in circuits that convert alternating current to direct current because of their property of conducting current in only one direction. They are also used in light-emitting diodes, which extract heat energy as light when coupled, and are therefore used in many electrical products. Light-emitting diodes have the property of emitting light from the PN junction when an electric current flows. Since they can emit light of various wavelengths depending on the material, they are used in TV screens and the projection part of infrared remote controls.

Since light-emitting diodes emit heat, they are widely used as energy-efficient LED lighting devices. Diodes are also used in AC adapters for various electrical devices. An AC power supply of 100 V is reduced to a voltage of 12 V or 6 V by a transformer and then to a smoothed direct current using a diode and a capacitor.

What Is an Analyzer?

An analyzer is a device or software for analyzing and analyzing input signals, samples, and data.

The term analyzer is often mistaken for measuring instrument, but it is not the same.

Types of Analyzers

There are various types of analyzers:

1. Spectrum Analyzer

A spectrum analyzer analyzes the frequency components of high-frequency signals.

It can analyze radio wave conditions that cannot be seen by the eye. The analysis results are displayed in terms of the magnitude of the components for each frequency. It is a measuring instrument used to inspect radio wave facilities such as cell phone base stations, and in many cases it is taken out and used on site. 

The horizontal axis of the analysis screen displays frequency (unit: Hz), and the vertical axis displays amplitude (unit: dB), allowing measurements from very weak signals to strong signals.

2. Network Analyzer

A network analyzer analyzes the characteristics of electronic components and analyzes electronic components modeled as a 4-terminal circuit network.

It measures currents, voltages, etc. at the input and output to obtain transfer characteristics (S-parameters). The gain magnitude at each frequency, phase at each frequency, etc. are output as analysis results. Graphs and Smith charts are used as display formats.

It is possible to measure the attenuation and impedance of input signals in electronic circuits. In a circuit network that handles high frequencies, impedance mismatches that occur between devices or cables can cause power loss or signal distortion, so they are analyzed with an analyzer.

3. Semiconductor Parameter Analyzer

Sometimes called a source measure, this analyzer analyzes the input/output characteristics of semiconductors such as transistors. The graph shows the change in output current, voltage, and resistance when the input voltage or current is varied.

Since this graph is generally a curve, it is sometimes called a curve tracer.

4. Power Analyzer

A power analyzer analyzes harmonics, momentary interruptions, overvoltages, and other variations in AC power. It includes functions such as power measurement and waveform display, harmonic analysis (FFT), etc.

It is used for measurements in smart grids (renewable energy) and inverters for electric drives in automobiles.

5. FFT Analyzer

FFT analyzers analyze low-frequency signals.

The 2CH model is used to analyze transfer characteristics. This model is used in the development of automobiles and aircraft. The analysis results are displayed in a graph showing the magnitude of the components at each frequency and the phase at each frequency.

FFT is a method of digitally performing Fourier transforms, and is characterized by its high-speed arithmetic processing. FFT analyzers are included in the broad classification of spectrum analyzers, but FFT analyzers are used at frequencies as low as 100 kHz.

6. Logic Analyzer

Logic analyzers measure signals flowing in logic circuits such as CPUs and analyze logic values (binary logic of 0s and 1s) from the measured signal voltages.

There are two measurement methods: timing measurement and state measurement. It has many measurement channels and can simultaneously measure high-speed digital signals. Recently, the number of digital signals itself is decreasing as digital systems are being integrated into IC chips, and logic analyzers are being used less frequently.

7. Protocol Analyzer

A protocol analyzer analyzes signals handled by digital communications and digital interfaces. In addition to dedicated hardware products, they also include software that runs on a PC. Software tools include LAN analyzers and packet analyzers.

Although we have mainly introduced analyzers in the fields of electricity, electronics, and communications, there are also analyzers in other fields such as chemistry, biology, and medicine.

What Is Inspection Equipment?

Inspection equipment is a generic term for equipment used to check whether something is in the correct or abnormal condition.

Inspection equipment is used during or at the end of the manufacturing process to assure the quality of products made by equipment or people. Generally, normal values are set, and if the inspection result is within the normal range, it is OK, and if it is outside the normal range, it is not.

Inspection methods include those that visually inspect the position and condition, such as image inspection, and those that measure metrological values such as flow rate and pressure. Almost any inspection can be performed as long as the condition can be quantified and a normal range can be set.

Types of Inspection Equipment

1. Appearance Inspection Machine

A camera is used to photograph the product and inspect whether there are any misalignments in processing or assembly positions, or whether there are any missing parts. A product is considered good if it satisfies all of the predetermined dimensions, angles, and positions of parts, etc., and defective if any of these are out of alignment. There is also an inspection process to check for bridges and spattering after soldering.

2. X-Ray Inspection Equipment

This inspection equipment is used to find defects inside a product that cannot be detected from the outside. It is often used in the casting process to detect internal cracks, nests, and foreign objects. X-rays used in hospitals are also used to check for abnormalities in the body.

3. Printing Inspection Machine

Inspection machines are widely used in the printing industry. They take pictures of printed materials with a camera and inspect them for printing errors, ink splattering, foreign matter, and other contaminants.

Widespread Use Of Sensory Inspection Equipment

Sensory testing is a type of product inspection in which a person uses all five senses (sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch) to detect abnormalities. This is based on the fact that humans can instantly detect even the slightest irregularity by running their fingers over the surface of a product, and can immediately notice any unusual smells or tastes.

However, there are problems with human inspections, such as sensitivity being dulled by physical conditions, and the standard of judgment being varied from person to person. In addition, it takes a long time to train people to perform accurate inspections, and it is time-consuming to develop human resources.

In recent years, this sensory inspection has been automated. Thanks to improvements in imaging technology, visual inspections have already been largely automated, smell and taste can now be quantified, and auditory and tactile senses can detect abnormalities based on differences in vibration and other factors.

What Are Relays?

A relay is a component with the function of a switch that turns on or off a subsequent electrical circuit by means of an electrical signal received from an external source.

Unlike manual controls, such as lighting that are turned on and off with a pushbutton, automatic controls require electrically operated contacts. For this purpose, relays are used, whose contacts are operated by electromagnetic force.

A relay is a device that opens or closes an electric circuit by electromagnetic force, and depending on the set capacity, can control even large loads. They are also called electromagnetic relays.

Types of Relays

Relays can be divided into two main types: contact relays and non-contact relays. Contact relays are also called mechanical relays, and non-contact relays are called solid-state relays (SSR).

1. With Contact Relays

Contact relays consist of a coil wound around an iron core and an electrical contact that turns the current on and off. When electricity flows through the coil, a magnetic field is generated, which attracts the metal contacts and energizes them when they make contact. The operation of the electromagnet and contacts are mechanically linked, but electrically separate. For example, the contacts of a relay operating at a voltage of 24 VDC can be used to light a 100 VAC light bulb.

2. Contactless Relay

A relay that does not have mechanically operating components like a contact relay. It consists of electronic components such as photodiodes, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and TRIACs and thyristors, which are a type of power semiconductor. The basic principle is that the photodiode receives the light generated by the current flowing through the light-emitting diode and current flows through it.

Role of Relays

Relays can switch large currents on and off with a small amount of current.

• When operating electrical equipment that consumes large amounts of current, such as motors and heaters, there is a risk that a large inrush current will flow through the operating switch if it is left in place, causing it to overheat or burn out. By inserting a relay between the switch and the load, such hazards can be prevented. It also prevents electric shocks to people operating electronic equipment.
• Inserting a relay between an electrical device and a battery shortens the wiring through which large currents flow and reduces resistance. In addition, since only a small current flows between relays and operation switches, they can be connected using thin wiring, greatly reducing power consumption.

Because relays have such a variety of effects, they are used in a wide range of applications, including in-vehicle, communications, home appliances, and factory control equipment.