カテゴリー: category_usa

What Is Die Casting Die?

Die casting is a type of casting method in which molten material is heated and poured into a mold.

The materials to be melted are metals such as aluminum, zinc, and magnesium. The manufacturing process is automated and suitable for mass production. An advantage is low cost, since once a die is made, it can be used continuously.

The term “Casting Die” refers not only to the manufacturing method but also to the product itself made by this method. Compared to other casting methods, die casting has a shorter history since the method was established, and new methods are being created even today.

Uses of Casting Die

1. Automotive Parts

Die casting is used in a wide variety of automotive parts, including parts of the body, covers around water pumps, engines, transmissions, compressors for air conditioners, and other parts with complex shapes.

Recently, with the need for electrification and weight reduction, they are also used in parts around power steering and covers for control units. Aluminum die casting is often used for automotive parts because they are often complex and require good heat dissipation; although there are alternatives using ABS and other resins, aluminum die casting is still an essential part of automotive parts today.

2. Home Appliances

Casting Die products are also used in familiar home appliances such as TVs, air conditioners, washing machines, and electric cookers.

Like automotive parts, many home appliances are precision products, and mass production is required. Therefore, Casting Die is used because of its ability to handle complex shapes and to keep production costs low.

3. Other Products

Casting Die products also contribute to miniaturization and weight reduction. Therefore, they are often used for products that require lightness, such as golf equipment, cameras, fishing equipment, OA equipment, and cell phones.

Principle of Die Casting Die

There are several types of Casting Die. The general construction method is the following procedure:

1. The fixed and movable molds of the Casting Die are pressed together with great force.
2. Molten metal is injected into the space between them at a high pressure of several tens of megapascals.
3. When the hot water hardens, the movable mold is moved to remove the part.

Special methods are as follows:

1. Vacuum Casting Die Method

After the molds are pressed together, air is removed to create a vacuum. After the vacuum is created, hot water is injected and the product is removed. Since air is removed, oxides are suppressed and high quality products can be produced. 

2. Non-Porous Casting Die Method

After the molds are pressed together, the inside of the mold is filled with oxygen. After filling, hot water is injected and the product is removed. This method has the feature of preventing the generation of nests due to the decompression caused by the oxidation reaction. This method is suitable for products that require strength. 

3. Local Pressure Casting Die

After the molds are aligned, hot water is injected. When the hot water is half solidified, the mold is partially re-pressurized. By re-pressurizing, hot water can be replenished to the area where shrinkage has occurred during solidification, thus making it possible to produce products with fewer cracks.

Other Information on Casting Die

1. The Difference Between Casting Die and Casting

Casting is a method of forming products by pouring liquid metal melted in a high-temperature furnace into molds made of sand, metal, or wax. Basically, no external force is applied, but the liquid metal’s own weight and subsequent flow is used.

Casting Die, on the other hand, is a further development of casting, in which liquid metal is injected into a mold under pressure to form it.

In casting, the high-temperature liquid metal is not so fluid that it takes time to spread to every corner of the mold under its own weight alone. Furthermore, it shrinks as it solidifies, so dimensional changes and wrinkles created during flow are likely to cause defects.

On the other hand, in Casting Die, pressure is applied to the liquid metal and injected into the mold, so the metal is quickly spread to all corners of the mold. Because it is formed under pressure, it has high dimensional accuracy and excellent surface roughness. This allows for high productivity in mass production.

Another major difference from casting is that finishing and inspection processes can be reduced due to the high quality.

2. Disadvantages of Casting Die

Undercut shapes are disadvantageous
Casting Die is used to extrude the product after molding, and it is difficult to extrude horizontal holes or flange parts that are perpendicular to the direction of extrusion. Such parts are called undercut shapes. To make products with undercuts, we use cores that can be removed after casting. This makes the mold more complex and increases the manufacturing cost.

Lower strength than cast products
In Casting Die, high-temperature liquid metal is forced into the product at high speed and high pressure, causing air that cannot escape and evaporated gases from the mold release agent that separates the mold from the product to be entrained in the product. This inevitably results in the inclusion of internal defects and a reduction in strength.

When plastic forming is applied by external force, such as hot forging or cold forging, it is possible to crush these defects, and thus the strength of the product is superior to that of Casting Die. Recently, however, Casting Die methods have been developed that solve this problem.

High initial cost
The disadvantage of Casting Die is that the initial cost is high because of the complicated mold shape and the need to use expensive materials with excellent resistance to heat and aluminum corrosion. In addition, since the die is repeatedly subjected to high temperature and high pressure loads hundreds or thousands of times a day, it does not have a long service life, resulting in high running costs.

What Is a Solar Generator?

A Solar Generator is a device that supplies electricity generated by solar panels.

Generally speaking, a solar generator is a product that combines a portable accumulator, solar panels, and a power conditioner.

As an emergency power source, demand for this product has been improving in recent years.

Uses of Solar Generators

Solar Generators are used for camping and disaster situations. The solar panels generate electricity during the day while the stored power is used at night. Since they do not require a power grid, they are especially useful in emergencies.

Solar Generators can be broadly classified into two types: fixed and portable.

Examples of use are shown below.

• Emergency power source in the event of a natural disaster
• Independent power source for off-grid power generation
• Power supply for overnight stay in a car or camping

Principle of Solar Generator

A Solar Generator consists of a solar panel, a power accumulator, and a power conditioner. The solar panels convert sunlight into electricity, the converted electricity is stored in the accumulator, and then converted to a voltage that is easy to use with the power conditioner.

Solar panels are classified into two types: Silicon-Based and Compound-Based.

For Solar Generators, Amorphous Silicon and Polycrystalline Silicon solar panels are used.

1. Amorphous Silicon

Amorphous silicon is manufactured by placing a thin layer of amorphous silicon on a substrate such as glass. While its conversion efficiency is low, it is characterized by its light weight, productivity and versatility.

Compared to monocrystalline silicon and polycrystalline silicon, power generation conversion efficiency does not decline even at high temperatures.

2. Polycrystalline Silicon

Polycrystalline silicon is a low-cost version of solar panels made from silicon scraps generated during the production of monocrystalline silicon. While they generate less power than monocrystalline silicon, they can be manufactured at a lower cost.

Storage Battery for Solar Generator

Not only solar power generation, but also electric energy cannot be stored. Electricity transmitted from power companies is only generated in the required amount at that moment. The power company plans power generation while forecasting demand.

In Solar Generators, electricity is stored as chemical energy by means of storage batteries. Therefore, power is available even during power outages caused by natural disasters such as earthquakes and typhoons.

However, storage batteries are expensive, so the storage batteries in Solar Generators also account for a large proportion of their price. They also require temperature control, as their lifespan is affected by temperature. Solar Generators use lead-acid batteries or lithium-ion batteries.

The characteristics of each are described below.

1. Lead-Acid Batteries

Lead electrode plates are inserted into dilute sulfuric acid, the electrolyte. Lead dioxide is used for the positive electrode (anode) and lead for the negative electrode (cathode), and electricity is generated through a chemical reaction between the dilute sulfuric acid and the lead. In addition to Solar Generators, lead-acid batteries are also used in car batteries and uninterruptible power supplies.

Lead-acid batteries can be manufactured inexpensively, but they have the disadvantage of being heavy. They can be repeatedly charged and discharged, but their performance deteriorates when over-discharged.

2. Lithium-Ion Batteries

A lithium-ion battery uses lithium transition metal oxide such as lithium cobaltate for the positive electrode, carbon materials such as graphite or graphite for the negative electrode, and organic solvents for the electrolyte. It charges and discharges when lithium ions move between the positive and negative electrodes.

In addition to Solar Generators, they are also used in smartphone batteries. While lithium-ion batteries are compact, lightweight, and resistant to deterioration, they are vulnerable to temperature changes and expensive.

Other types of batteries include nickel-metal hydride batteries and NAS storage batteries.

What Is Zeolite?

Zeolite is a crystalline aluminosilicate. Its main components are silicon, aluminum, and oxygen, forming a porous crystal structure. The smallest basic unit of zeolite is the SiO4 tetrahedron, which is assembled into a three-dimensional structure. Some of the silicon is replaced by aluminum, and cations exist around it to regulate the charge.

In general, zeolites have ion exchange and adsorption capacities that derive from their unique crystal structure. This property is applied to gas adsorption, cation exchange, and catalysis.

Zeolite Application

Zeolites have a myriad of pores at the molecular level and depending on their structure, they possess various properties such as adsorption, ion exchange, and catalytic properties.

Zeolites are also called molecular sieves and can sieve molecules according to pore size. This property is used to remove water and impurities from gases and solvents. Zeolites are also used as soil conditioners, water treatment agents, carbon dioxide and nitrogen adsorbents, and are catalysts for petrochemical products.

Zeolite Principles

Zeolite is a porous crystalline aluminosilicate composed of SiO4 and AlO4 tetrahedra. Zeolites are composed of SiO4 tetrahedra and AlO4 tetrahedra.

Zeolites are composed of SiO4 and AlO4 tetrahedra in a wide variety of crystal structures, and currently, more than 240 different structures have been found. Each of these differs greatly in pore size and adsorption capacity.

Zeolites are classified into three main types: natural zeolite, synthetic zeolite, and artificial zeolite. There are many types of natural zeolites, including borite, mordenite, and clinoptilolite. Most of them do not have a uniform crystal structure and occur together with quartz and carbonates. Synthetic zeolites are artificially synthesized zeolites. Synthetic zeolites have higher adsorption and ion exchange capacities than natural zeolites, but the cost of synthesis is higher. Artificial zeolite is a zeolite synthesized without the high cost of synthetic zeolite. It can be synthesized by reacting coal ash with caustic soda. By changing the formulation and conditions, artificial zeolite with high functionality can be synthesized.

Water Treatment with Zeolite

Zeolite has been used as a material for the separation of membranes. Zeolite can be processed into inorganic membranes called reverse osmosis membranes to dehydrate organic solvents, remove water vapor from gases, and remove salt from seawater. For example, in the dehydration of organic solvents, water is removed by taking advantage of the slight difference in molecular weight between organic solvent molecules and water molecules. Hydrophilic organic solvents such as ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, butanol, ethyl acetate, and acetone can also be dehydrated.

There are three advantages to using zeolites for water treatment.

The first is that zeolites have uniform pores, enabling separation by molecular sieving with high precision. Zeolites are called molecular sieves because they have numerous pores at the molecular level and can sieve at the molecular level.

Second, because of its heat resistance and chemical resistance, zeolite can be used under high-temperature conditions and applied to various substances. It can be used for chemicals that are harmful to the human body, such as those used in chemical plants and paint factories.

Third, zeolite itself is available in a wide variety of types, each with various compositions and pore sizes. This allows for a much greater degree of freedom in the treatment process, as materials can be selected according to the object to be treated and the application.

As the composition of the zeolite changes, the properties of the water treatment also change. For example, zeolite contains a large amount of silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al). When the Si/Al ratio is low, the zeolite becomes more hydrophilic and shows high water adsorption properties, making it suitable for the dehydration of solvents. Conversely, when the Si/Al ratio is increased, hydrophobicity increases and chemical resistance to acids and other substances is high, making zeolite suitable for treating highly acidic chemicals.

Environmental conservation with zeolite

Zeolites are attracting attention for their use in agriculture and environmental conservation due to their adsorption and ion exchange capacities.

Zeolites can be applied to ponds, swamps, and soil to adsorb heavy metals and eutrophication-causing components, thereby protecting the water and soil environment. Zeolite is also an excellent material for the deodorization and decomposition of toxic components of automobile exhaust gas to maintain normal air, water, and soil environments.

Additionally, zeolites are used in agricultural and horticultural applications. Zeolite has regular pores that allow for adequate aeration. Mixing soil with zeolite creates soil that provides sufficient oxygen to the roots and improves plant growth. It can also adsorb a variety of substances, allowing it to retain some of the fertilizer components while supplying an adequate amount to the plants. It can also purify the soil by adsorbing impurities contained in the soil. Minerals dissolved in zeolite can also have the effect of being used as plant nutrients. Examples of applications in the horticultural field include potted plants, vases, and hydroponics.

Energy and petrochemical applications

Zeolite is one of the indispensable catalytic materials in the petrochemical field. Zeolites are used for isomerization, cracking, and aromatization of hydrocarbons, and to produce fuel oils such as gasoline from methanol. Fluidized bed catalytic cracking (FCC) is one of the most typical examples. This is a reaction that breaks down the components obtained from the upstream of crude oil into molecules with lower carbon numbers. A method used to produce higher value-added components such as gasoline and is indispensable to our current way of life.

In recent years, zeolite separation membranes have also been developed to remove carbon dioxide from biogas, natural gas, and coal gasification combined cycle power generation, etc. These are attracting attention as energy sources with less environmental impact, and zeolites are also very important in the energy and environmental fields.

What Is a Separator?

A separator is a component that separates the positive (anode) and negative (cathode) electrodes of a secondary battery to prevent electrical contact between the positive and negative electrodes and ensure ion conductivity. The types of batteries include nickel-metal hydride batteries, lithium-ion batteries, fuel cells, and more.

Although specifications differ depending on the battery type, such as nickel-metal hydride batteries, lithium-ion batteries, and fuel cells, the common feature is that it is a component that facilitates the fundamental electrochemical reaction between the positive and negative electrodes.

For example, in a lithium-ion battery, lithium ions (Li+) and electrons move in and out between the positive (anode) and negative (cathode) electrodes to charge and discharge the battery.

This is achieved by creating a small hole in the separator to allow lithium ions to pass through.

Application of Separators

In this section, we will describe an example of the application of separators used in lithium-ion batteries. With the proliferation of tablet PCs and electric vehicles, there is a growing demand for lithium-ion batteries with higher capacity and energy density.

Separators are used to insulate the positive (anode) and negative (cathode) electrodes, prevent abnormal heat generation due to short circuits, and facilitate the charge and discharge of the battery through proper ionic conduction between the positive (anode) and negative (cathode) electrodes.

Here are some examples of separators used in lithium-ion batteries:

• Separators for automotive laminated lithium-ion batteries
• Separators for automotive rectangular lithium-ion batteries
• Separator for a laminated lithium-ion battery for smartphones

Principle of Separators

This section explains the principle of separators used in lithium-ion batteries.

Lithium-ion batteries are charged and discharged by the conduction of lithium ions between the positive and negative electrodes, and an electrolyte is injected to facilitate the conduction of lithium ions. During this process, if electrons are conducted through the electrolyte, electricity cannot be transmitted to the external circuit. Therefore, a separator is placed between the positive and negative electrodes to allow only lithium ions to pass through and prevent internal short circuits caused by contact between the positive and negative electrodes.

As a result, the separator must possess ion conductivity and electrical insulation properties. Additionally, it requires materials that are electrically, chemically, and mechanically robust to ensure stable battery operation. For this reason, separator materials and shapes are modified in various ways depending on the application to enhance the efficiency of the electrochemical reaction of lithium ions from the positive electrode (anode) to the negative electrode (cathode).

Examples of Technological Innovations in Separators

Fluoroplastic Coating

• Objective: To enhance adhesion in the production of laminated cells
• Summary: The use of fluoropolymer coating enables strong adhesion between electrodes (positive and negative electrodes). Separators are gaining attention as a technology that can prevent cell deformation, improve the C-rate, and develop structures that lead to higher capacity.

What Is a Raised Access Floor?

A Raised Access Floor is a floor with a fixed height space under the floor. The purpose is to pass network wiring, etc., which tend to become cluttered, through the space under the floor. It is also known as free-access floor or a double-layered floor.

Raised Access Floors do not affect the placement of desks and cabinets, making it easy to change wiring later. They also prevent damage to wiring and other hazards caused by human traffic and moving chairs.

Raised Access Floors have many advantages, such as improved aesthetics and easier cleaning.

Uses of Raised Access Floors

Raised Access Floors are installed in offices, factories, commercial facilities, schools, and other locations where many computers, servers, printers, network equipment, telephones, video equipment, and other electronic devices are used.

In the past, Raised Access Floors were used in computer rooms where large computers were installed in large organizations such as large corporations. Recently, however, due to the increase in the number of PCs and other OA equipment, and the spread of network environments such as LAN and Ethernet, OA floors are commonly used regardless of the size of the office.

When installing, it is important to estimate in advance the number of wires and load required. After installation, the wiring paths cannot be followed visually without opening the floor, so it is necessary to attach tags with numbers and destinations to the wiring ends and record them in drawings and management books.

Principle of Raised Access Floors

Raised Access Floors can be broadly classified into two types according to its structure: laid-in type and pillar separation type.

In addition, the wiring system can be roughly classified into two types: under-panel wiring system and groove wiring system.

1. Laid-In-Place Type

In the laid-in-place type, the pillar and panel are laid out as a single block. Most of them are made of resin, which makes on-site processing relatively easy, and the materials themselves are inexpensive, making them cost-effective. In this type, the floor height is fixed and cannot be changed later.

Because the degree of freedom in height adjustment is limited, this type is inherently unsuitable for installation in locations where the floor slab of a building has a difference in height and is not flat. However, there are products that can adjust the height using spacers. Due to the load-bearing capacity of the material used, these products are not suitable for installation of heavy objects.

2. Pillar Separation Type

In the pillar separation type, a pillar is erected on the floor and a board-like panel is placed on top of it. The height can be freely adjusted and the load capacity is excellent. The panel that makes up the floor and the support columns that determine the height are independent components, and the height of the columns can be adjusted, allowing the height of the floor to be adjusted as desired.

Therefore, the panel is suitable for use where there are steps or height differences in the floor of a building. And since metal products are the main material used for the panels, they are suitable for installation of heavy objects. In addition, there are products in which the panels are filled with mortar, which improves heat and sound insulation.

3.Under-Panel Wiring Method

The under-panel wiring method is a method of storing wiring in the cavity between the posts and legs, and has the advantages of large wiring storage capacity and a high degree of wiring flexibility. In the case of the separate-pillar type, the storage capacity can be further increased by increasing the height of the pillars. The disadvantage is that there is a possibility of interference.

4. Groove Wiring Method

In the groove wiring method, wiring is done along the groove of the panel, and a cover is placed over the top to protect the wiring. This method has the advantage of facilitating wiring changes and additions. Although the wiring storage capacity is small, wiring is done in an orderly fashion along the grooves, preventing interference. The groove wiring method is suitable when the number of wires is small or when there are plans to change the layout or increase the floor space.

Other Information on Raised Access Floor

Advantages and Disadvantages of Raised Access Floors

Advantages

1. It has a cleaner appearance and improves work efficiency.
2. Wiring outlets can be changed, allowing free layout changes of desks and PCs.
3. Reduces problems such as falling over due to feet getting caught in wiring or data errors due to wiring disconnections, etc.
4. Floor cleaning becomes easier.

Disadvantages

1. Raised Access Floors have a limited load-bearing capacity and are restricted to heavy equipment. Also, since the height cannot be adjusted, they are not suitable for floors with slopes.
2. Raised Access Floors with separate support columns have heavy metal parts, which may cause problems in workability and load-bearing capacity of the building.
3. Depending on the equipment used, durability and walking feel may be defective. It is important to confirm this through testing.

What Is a KVM Switch?

A KVM (Keyboard/Video/Mouse) Switch is a piece of hardware that allows you to control multiple computers with a single keyboard, display (video), and mouse. It is also sometimes referred to as a CPU Switcher or PC Switcher.

Basically, a single pair of KVMs control multiple computers, but some products allow multiple KVMs to control a single computer. The more versatile KVM switches also offer the ability to share USB devices and speakers. They can also be used for data servers as well as computers.

Uses of KVM Switches 

KVM Switches can be used in the home, but are most commonly used in industrial and commercial applications. Some examples are listed below:

• Data centers with many servers running
• Factories, offices, and laboratories with multiple PCs
• Factories with a structure or layout that makes access to the PCs difficult
• Large premises or locations where multiple PCs are installed.

Principle of KVM Switches

KVM Switches connect the cables from each device to the switch and outputs to the computer via a special cable that combines USB and VGA.

There are two types of KVM switches: passive and active, each with a different principle; the characteristics of the PC and OS will affect the compatibility of the KVM switch, so an appropriate switch must be selected.

1. Passive KVM Switch

Passive KVM Switches, also known as Mechanical KVM Switches, physically switch the electrical circuitry. PCs are switched by select switches or pushbuttons.

While the structure is simple and inexpensive, the maximum number of PCs that can be connected is limited to 12. Also, since the interface device is perceived as physically disconnected from the unselected PC, it may fail to boot or boot without a mouse, depending on the PC and OS. 

2. Active KVM Switch

Active KVM Switches, also called Electronic KVM Switches, use simulated signals to switch between peripheral devices. Unlike Mechanical KVM Switches, they emulate the connection of an interface device to a non-selected PC. This prevents non-selected PCs from failing to boot.

Active KVM Switches also work well with PCs and operating systems that continuously monitor the connection status of interface devices, and switching between PCs can be done by quickly pressing a specific key, eliminating the need to touch the KVM switch itself for convenience.

KVM Switch with Long-Distance Communication

KVM Switches are available as Remote KVM devices that can be operated from long distances. There are two types of remote KVMs, analog KVM and digital KVM, depending on the control method.

1. Analog KVM

Analog KVM Switches are designed for operation over a distance of up to 300 meters. A LAN cable is used for connection, but the communication protocol is proprietary to the product, so it cannot be connected to other LAN devices.

Because it uses a proprietary protocol, it does not have much communication delay time. 256 or more access points can be configured, and more than 8,000 PCs can be controlled.

2. Digital KVM

Also called KVM Over IP, Digital KVM can send and receive signals over the Internet via Ethernet communication. Although there is a slight delay in operation due to the use of the Internet, it can operate over a longer distance than analog KVM. Because of this characteristic, they are also used for remote work.

Most digital KVMs allow remote control of PCs via a browser or dedicated viewer software. Remote software that can remotely control a PC over the Internet includes VNC and terminal services. Digital KVM Switches have the advantage over them in that they do not require the installation of remote software.

What Is Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Grating?

Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Grating is a grating made of FRP. It is a relatively new material and is mainly used for buildings.

FRP is an acronym for “Fiber Reinforced Plastics”. It is a material that combines plastic resin and glass fiber, and its strength is comparable to that of metal, even though it is plastic. Since it does not corrode, it is widely used in factories and outdoors where corrosive substances are handled.

Uses of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Grating

FRP Grating is used in various places as a construction material. In daily life, they can be found in aquarium corridors and drain covers. This is because corrosion by seawater will occur if grating made of metal material is used.

In industrial applications, grating is used in flue gas desulfurization plants. FRP is also used for flue gas desulfurization plants, and FRP material is very useful for flue gas desulfurization plants.

Principle of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Grating

FRP is reinforced by mixing glass fiber with plastic. The strength is increased by mixing glass fiber, which has a high elasticity rate and is strong, with plastic, which has a low elasticity rate and is prone to cracking.

FRP Grating is lighter than metal grating. Specifically, its specific gravity is about 25% that of cast iron and 60% that of aluminum, and it has excellent corrosion resistance. When utilized as a construction material, FRP grating is easier to process than metal grating. However, being a mixture of plastic and glass fiber, it is difficult to recycle or dispose of.

FRP Grating can be colored either by surface coating or by adding pigments during the molding process. Mixing the pigments during the molding process is advantageous because it prevents the surface from peeling off.

Use of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Grating as Flooring Material

FRP Grating is a lightweight material with excellent corrosion resistance. Therefore, FRP grating is suitable for flooring in corrosive environments such as chemical plants and ships where load reduction is required. FRP Grating with a non-slip shape can also help prevent pedestrians from falling.

FRP Gratings have high lighting performance, allowing light to reach the first floor through windows on the second floor of a house. It is also possible to change the impression by changing the color. When used as a flooring material, it may cause pain standing barefoot for long periods of time. For places where people stand for long periods of time, polycarbonate is placed on top of the grating to distribute the weight.

FRP Grating can also be used for bridge floor panels, stairs, etc. because it is an insulator, allows radio waves to pass through, and can be easily colored.

Other Information on Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Grating

1. Strength of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Grating

FRP Grating can withstand up to 350 kg per square meter, and its service life is estimated to be 20~30 years based on the results of outdoor exposure and accelerated exposure tests. Yellowing of the exterior due to ultraviolet rays will occur after 5~10 years of use. This yellowing can be improved by painting.

FRP Grating is impact resistant to full impact. However, there are limitations on impact resistance due to puncture and falling load, so it is necessary to check the information of the manufacturing manufacturer.

The heat resistance of general FRP gratings are about 65~80℃, which is not as high as that of metal. FRP Grating made of a special resin should be used for use under high temperatures. 

2. Outdoor Use of Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Grating

FRP Gratings have high weather resistance, and their strength hardly deteriorates due to temperature changes. Therefore, they can be used outdoors. Examples of outdoor applications include balcony flooring, plant walkways, stair treads, drain covers, and exterior wall partitions.

What Is an ELISA Kit?

An ELISA Kit is one of the immunoassay method using antibodies for quantification by ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay).

ELISA is a method for quantifying trace amounts of biological substances using an antigen-antibody reaction.

Uses of ELISA Kits

Figure 1. Overview of ELIS

ELISA kits are often used in the field of biology from the viewpoint that trace amounts of biological substances can be detected with high accuracy by antigen-antibody reaction. For example, they are used to measure blood proteins such as cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors, or in immuno-oncology to measure soluble immune checkpoint molecules to elucidate the status of cancer immunity.

In neurobiology, they is used to quantify Aβ, tau, and α-synuclein proteins that are known to cause neuropathy.

Other ELISA kits, such as phosphorylation-specific kits and immunoglobulin kits, are available, allowing you to select the ELISA kit that best suits your research and objectives.

Competitive ELISA analysis is also appropriate when measuring histamine, pesticides, dioxin, etc.

Principle of ELISA Kits

ELISA uses an antibody or an antigen that binds specifically to the substance to be measured (antigen-antibody reaction). Finally, an enzyme-labeled antibody (or antigen) is used to detect and evaluate enzyme activity by absorbance measurement.

By measuring the enzyme activity, the concentration of the enzyme in solution, the substances in the reagents involved in the antigen-antibody reaction, and the target substance can be quantified.

There are four main methods: direct method, indirect method, sandwich method, and competitive method.

Figure 2. Direct and indirect methods

1. Direct Method

In this method, the target antigen or antibody is solid-phased on a microplate, and the labeled antigen or antibody directly interacts with it. After the antigen or antibody is applied, the plate is washed and the enzyme activity on the microplate is detected. Since no secondary antibody is required, this method can be performed in a single step and in a short time.

2. Indirect Method

First, an antibody specific for the target antigen is applied to the solid-phase microplate. Then, the enzyme activity of the enzyme on the labeled secondary antibody is detected. This method is characterized by increased sensitivity, but requires more time than the direct method.

Figure 3. Sandwich and competitive methods

3. Sandwich Method

A microplate coated with an antibody that binds to the target substance in the sample is used to react with the sample as an antigen. Subsequently, the sample is reacted with another antibody labeled with an enzyme, and the excess antibody is washed off before the enzyme activity on the microplate is measured.

It is necessary to select an antibody that has a different antigen recognition site from the antibody used for solid phase and the enzyme-labeled antibody.

The advantage of the sandwich method is that the specificity of the reaction is higher than that of the direct method, resulting in higher detection accuracy.

4. Competitive Method

The competitive method can be used to measure small molecules that are difficult to detect with the sandwich method, or when there is only one binding site for the antibody.

An antibody that binds to the target substance is coated on a solid phase, and the sample is simultaneously reacted with a labeled antigen of known concentration. If the sample contains a large amount of the target substance, the absorbance decreases because there is little enzyme-labeled antigen that can bind to the antibody.

Conversely, if the sample contains less of the target substance, more of the enzyme-labeled antigen is available to bind to the antibody, resulting in an increase in absorbance.

How to Select an ELISA Kit

As mentioned above, since detection is performed using specific antigen-antibody reactions, the first prerequisite is to use a product that uses the correct combination of reagents for the sample. In addition, whether using direct, indirect, sandwich, or competitive methods, each method has their own advantages and disadvantages, so it is necessary to select the most preferable one according to the purpose of the measurement.

Solid-phase attachment to a microplate is generally by hydrophobic interaction or covalent bonding, and it is important to select the correct microplate according to the binding mode. In addition to hydrophobic and hydrophilic types, many types are available, including those processed with amino and carboxyl groups for covalent binding applications.

What Is a CT Scanner?

A CT (Computed Tomography) Scanner is a scanner used for inspection.

There are two main types of CT Scanners: Medical CT Scanners used for imaging the human body and animals, and Industrial CT Scanners used for non-destructive testing and shipping inspection of products.

Uses of CT Scanners

CT scanners are used in the medical field to diagnose abnormalities in the brain and lungs.

In the industrial field, they are commonly used to detect the internal structure of products to measure the internal dimensions of wiring, to elucidate the internal state of forged products, to measure errors, and to detect the alignment of fibers.

When used in the medical field, X-ray output must be suppressed to avoid excessive exposure to radiation, but when used for industrial applications, X-ray output can be increased without any problem, thus enabling information to be obtained with higher precision than in medical applications.

Principle of CT Scanners

The principle of a CT scanner is similar to that of an X-ray. They consist of an X-ray irradiator, a detector, and an image processor that converts the detected data into an image.

Since each material absorbs X-rays differently (X-ray absorption coefficient), when X-rays are irradiated to an object to be examined, they penetrate at different rates of transmission depending on the material. Using this principle, we irradiate an object to be inspected with X-rays and detect the different transmission doses for each part of the object to be inspected. The general principle is to create an image by image processing based on this detection data.

The major difference between X-rays and CT scanners is that X-rays are irradiated from one direction on the specimen, while CT scanners irradiate X-rays from various directions on the specimen. For this reason, X-rays produce only flat images based on two-dimensional data, while a CT scanner uses three-dimensional data to produce a series of images of the specimen sliced in a circle at multiple locations, as well as images and movies that are composed in three dimensions.

Two physical phenomena are used in CT scanner produced scans: Compton scattering and the Photoelectric effect.

1. Compton Scattering

This occurs when X-rays collide with electrons, imparting some of the energy of the X-rays to the electrons, causing them to be blown out of their atomic orbits and reducing the energy of the X-rays.

2. Photoelectric Effect

This occurs when X-rays collide with electrons and all the energy of the X-rays is absorbed by the electrons, causing the electrons to be blown away from their atomic orbits and the X-rays to disappear.

Differences Between CT Scanners

There are two main types of CT Scanner applications: medical and industrial. The differences between them are explained from the following perspectives:

1. X-Ray Output

Medical CT scanners need to suppress X-ray output to avoid excessive exposure. On the other hand, industrial CT scanners can use relatively high X-ray output because the object to be inspected is an object, and thus can obtain highly accurate information. 

2. Configuration

Medical CT Scanner
A medical CT scanner consists of a doughnut-shaped gantry in which an X-ray irradiator and a detector are placed relative to each other. The gantry has a bed-like part on which the object to be examined is placed within the ring of the gantry. The gantry rotates around the bed, and the X-ray irradiator and detector rotate around the object to be inspected.

Industrial CT Scanner
In the industrial CT scanner, the X-ray irradiator and detector are fixed relative to each other, and the part to be inspected is placed between them. By rotating the part on which the object to be inspected is placed, the object itself is rotated for inspection.

Therefore, depending on the size of the object to be inspected, industrial CT scanners can be made smaller.

Industrial CT scanners are equipped with an X-ray leakage cabinet to confine X-rays inside the device, which also makes it possible to reduce the size of the scanner.

In both medical and industrial CT scanners, there are two types: one with a single row of detectors along the X-ray transmission plane in the width direction of the object to be inspected, and the other with multiple rows of detectors along the length direction of the object to be inspected.

The one with multiple rows of detectors can acquire data for each row at a time, which makes it possible to acquire data faster than the one with only one row.

In the case of industrial CT scanners, multiple-row CT Scanners are more suitable because efficiency is more important. Medical CT scanners are also often used because the faster the examination can be completed, the less burden is placed on the patient.

Other Information on CT Scanners

1. The Relationship Between CT Scanners and Cancer

CT scans are widely used for everything from examination to diagnosis and even medical treatment, although the image of CT scans is that they are used to find cancer. Although, there is a risk of cancer from CT scans, and it is necessary to fully understand the risks when CT scans are performed.

A CT scanner is an important device in medicine, but it is not without risks of causing cancer because of the x-ray irradiation.

The risk of developing cancer from a single CT scan is considered low, and the risk of not undergoing a CT scan is much higher than the risk of undergoing a CT scan. 

2. Difference Between CT and MRI

The main difference between CT and MRI is the principle of measurement.

CT scanners form images based on differences in the transmission of X-rays through different materials, as described above, whereas MRI creates images based on the magnetic resonance of materials. CT scanners have the advantage of short acquisition times and the ease of obtaining tomographic images, and are more indicated for emergency head lesions (such as suspected hemorrhage). and the ability to image bone.

On the other hand, MRI is inferior to CT in terms of radiation exposure and differences in density between lesions and normal tissue.

Another advantage is that any tomographic image can be obtained, and images of blood vessels can be obtained without the use of contrast media. The disadvantage, on the other hand, is that those with implanted devices in the body cannot be examined.

What Is a CCD Camera?

A CCD Camera is a camera that uses a CCD as its image sensor. CCD stands for Charge Coupled Device.

In recent years, technological innovations have replaced CCD cameras with CMOS sensors, which are superior in terms of performance and cost. However, they are still in use in some research applications, and some hobbyists prefer them because of their tendency to produce stronger contrast in photographs than CMOS.

Uses of CCD Cameras

CCD cameras are used in some compact digital cameras, but development of CCD cameras for general use are being produced. It is highly likely that they will be replaced by CMOS cameras in the future.

They are often useful in research applications. For example, they are used in combination with microscopes in imaging biomolecules. CCD cameras are characterized by their high sensitivity.

CCDs are characterized by their high sensitivity. Furthermore, the detection sensitivity can be increased up to 1000 times by amplifying the detection signal with an EMCCD (electron multiplying).

Recent CMOS sensors can also detect single molecule fluorescence by improving quantum yield. However, when single molecule fluorescence is weak, an EMCCD camera that can amplify the signal is more advantageous.

Principle of CCD Cameras

CCD cameras use a lens or other optical system to form an image on a CCD sensor, which consists of an array of photodiodes (CCD elements).

When a photon strikes a light-receiving CCD element, the photoelectric effect generates electrons, and the element stores an electric charge. The charge accumulated in each CCD is transferred to the CCD for transfer, and the current is amplified by an amplifier. The amplified current is calculated by the CCD camereas control board and converted into image data.

In EMCCD, a voltage is applied to the transferred charge before it is sent to the amplifier to double the number of electrons. This is done using a phenomenon called collisional ionization. The EMCCD can also detect single photons and can measure the number of photons.

However, charge transfer does not take place until enough charge is accumulated in all CCDs in a row. This is the rate-limiting factor in the transfer rate.

Types of CCD Cameras

1. CCD Element Type

Full-frame type
Full-frame CCDs are standard CCDs and have the highest sensitivity and dynamic range for physical and chemical measurements. A light-shielding shutter is required to prevent light from shining on the element during readout.

Frame transfer type
The frame transfer type has two types of CCDs, one for light receiving and the other for image storage. The received image is transferred to the CCD for temporary storage, and the stored charge is read out during the next exposure. While a shutter is not required, a CCD with twice the area is needed.

Interline type
The interline type CCD is a type in which the light receiving and storing sections are arranged in a single element. This type of CCD element is used in video cameras. A shutter is not required, but the aperture is smaller than that of a full frame.

2. Types of CCD Cameras

Spectroscopic camera
This is a camera that can obtain the spectral spectrum of an image. It can measure spectral characteristics within the shooting range at once. Applications include diagnosis of food freshness, detection of foreign substances, and in the industrial field, management of product color.

Camera for biological observation
Cooled CCD cameras are widely used for the purpose of observing microscopic movements of living organisms and images of extremely low light by attaching them to microscopes. The key factors are high sensitivity, high resolution, and high speed.

X-ray camera
X-ray CCD cameras are becoming widely used in the soft X-ray to hard X-ray range. CCD cameras are superior to other detectors because of their high sensitivity and wide dynamic range.

High-speed cameras
Cameras capable of 100 frames per second or more are called high-speed cameras. They are increasingly used in industrial applications such as automobile crash tests and factory manufacturing process control.

Other Information on CDD Cameras

Differences From CMOS Cameras

A CCD sensor extracts charge from electrodes to the outside like a bucket relay, whereas a CMOS sensor has a photodiode in each pixel and reads signals directly from the pixel while switching at high speed with a semiconductor switch. Thus, there are the following differences:

CCD = power consumption x / image quality ◎ / price x
C-MOS = power consumption ◎/image quality ◎/price ◎

Thus, CCD is superior in terms of image quality, while CMOS is less expensive.