月: 2023年7月

What Is Observation Equipment?

Observation equipment is a generic term for equipment used to observe the state or change of an object.

In general, it refers to instruments such as microscopes, used to observe the microscopic form and structure of the surface and interior of an object. It may also refer to equipment used to continuously or periodically observe changes in an object.

Types of Observation Instruments

The microscope is a typical observation instrument.

There are various types of microscopes, but the term microscope simply refers to an optical microscope that illuminates an object and observes a magnified image.

Optical microscopes are classified into two types: transmission microscopes (biological microscopes), which use illumination transmitted through a sample, and reflection microscopes (industrial microscopes), which use illumination reflected from a sample.

Fluorescence microscopes are used to observe the fluorescence emitted by a sample, measuring microscopes are used to measure the length and coordinates of an object, and laser microscopes, confocal microscopes, and shape analysis laser microscopes use laser beams as their light source. Binocular stereomicroscopes, which enable three-dimensional observation of an object, are also classified as optical microscopes, and are used for surgery and autopsies in the medical field and for assembly and inspection in the manufacturing field.

While optical microscopes use light to form magnified images, electron microscopes use electron beams to visualize finer structures than optical microscopes. X-ray microscopes, ultrasonic microscopes, and infrared microscopes use X-rays, ultrasound, and infrared rays to nondestructively observe not only the surface but also the internal structure of specimens, while CT scanners and X-ray CT systems are used to create 3D images from X-ray microscope images.

Unlike the above-mentioned microscopes, scanning probe microscopes use mechanical and electromagnetic interactions between the sample and the probe to observe the sample by tracing it with a needle-like thin probe. There are several types of scanning tunneling microscopes (STM) and atomic force microscopes (AFM), which are used for atomic-level observations in a wide range of fields.

Types of Observation Instruments

Microscopes are optical microscopes with digital camera functions. There are blood flow scopes, handheld scopes, fiberscopes, etc., and they are used for different purposes.

What Is Measuring Equipment?

Measuring equipment is a generic term for equipment used to quantitatively measure physical quantities of objects.

Instruments that assist in measurement may also be classified as measuring instruments, such as ultracentrifuges that use centrifugal force to separate liquids and oscilloscopes.

Instruments that display measurements may also be classified as measuring instruments, such as energy monitors.

Items used by measuring instruments to make measurements include contact sensors, lasers, scales, light, infrared, and inspection needles. Physical quantities measured include length, object surface roughness, temperature, radiation dose, roundness, and transmittance. Other quantities measured include the percentage of ions present and their concentration.

Measuring instruments vary in size, ranging from hand-held to as large as or larger than a person.

Some instruments are made of metal, which expands and contracts depending on temperature. To prevent expansion and contraction from interfering with measurements, some length measuring instruments must be stored at an acceptable temperature.

Uses of Measuring Instruments

Measuring instruments are used to measure physical quantities of products and objects to be measured, and to use the obtained data for countermeasures and analysis.

In the case of products, it is possible to use the data obtained in the manufacturing stage to take measures against defects. For example, the force a product is subjected to when it is actually used is measured and evaluated to determine if the product will fail or not. The data can be used to improve the product.

Oscilloscopes and other measuring instruments are used to make invisible things such as electric currents visible.

What Is a Diode?

A diode is an electronic component that allows current to flow in only one direction. The most common type is a PN-type diode consisting of an N-type semiconductor and a P-type semiconductor.

N-type semiconductors are semiconductors with an excess of electrons compared to the positive charge of the nucleus. The extra electrons are called free electrons, which move from the negative to the positive side when voltage is applied.

When voltage is applied to a PN junction diode so that the P side is positive and the N side is negative, the holes that have moved to the negative side and the electrons that have moved to the positive side meet at the PN junction surface, and the electrons on the N side and holes on the P side combine and both disappear.

For that amount of time, electrons are supplied to the N side from the power supply, and electrons flow out of the P side to produce a hole, resulting in current flow from the P side to the N side. Conversely, if a negative voltage is applied to the P side and a positive voltage to the N side, the holes will move to the negative side and the electrons to the positive side, both on the opposite side of the junction surface, and no current will flow.

This characteristic of a diode that allows current to flow one way is used as a switch or rectifier.

Types of Diodes

There are various types of diodes, but the following six main types exist:

• Rectifier diodes
• Switching diodes
• Zener diodes
• Photodiodes
• Schottky barrier diodes
• Light Emitting Diodes

1. Rectifier Diodes

A rectifier diode converts alternating current to direct current by allowing current to flow in one direction and not in another, depending on the direction of voltage.

2. Switching Diode

A diode that functions as a switch with a feature that allows current to flow in only one direction. Compared to rectifier diodes, switching diodes are characterized by a shorter time from the on state to the off state.

3. Zener Diode

When a reverse voltage is applied to a diode, no current flows, but when the reverse voltage exceeds a certain voltage (Zener voltage), current flows in the reverse direction. Because it maintains a constant voltage regardless of the magnitude of the current, a Zener diode is sometimes called a constant-voltage diode.

4. Photodiode

A photodiode is a diode in which a small current flows in a constant direction when illuminated by light. It works in the opposite way to a light-emitting diode (LED).

5. Schottky Barrier Diode

A diode with a structure consisting of an N-type semiconductor and a metal junction instead of a PN junction. The time from the on-state to the off-state is very short, and they are used for high-speed switching operations.

6. Light-Emitting Diode

These diodes are well known as LEDs. When a forward voltage is applied, electrons and holes combine and are annihilated at the PN bonding plane, and the difference in energy before and after this happens is emitted as light. The color of the emitted light differs depending on the compound that makes up the semiconductor.

Diode Characteristics

Diodes have a variety of electrical characteristics, including V-I characteristics, which express the relationship between applied voltage and flowing current, reverse recovery time from diode on to off, maximum values of forward and reverse voltage that can be applied, maximum allowable values of forward and reverse currents, and power loss.

It is important to select a diode with appropriate characteristics according to the environment and conditions in which it will be used, as well as the type of diode for the application.

How to Use Diodes

Diodes are used in circuits that convert alternating current to direct current because of their property of conducting current in only one direction. They are also used in light-emitting diodes, which extract heat energy as light when coupled, and are therefore used in many electrical products. Light-emitting diodes have the property of emitting light from the PN junction when an electric current flows. Since they can emit light of various wavelengths depending on the material, they are used in TV screens and the projection part of infrared remote controls.

Since light-emitting diodes emit heat, they are widely used as energy-efficient LED lighting devices. Diodes are also used in AC adapters for various electrical devices. An AC power supply of 100 V is reduced to a voltage of 12 V or 6 V by a transformer and then to a smoothed direct current using a diode and a capacitor.

What Is an Analyzer?

An analyzer is a device or software for analyzing and analyzing input signals, samples, and data.

The term analyzer is often mistaken for measuring instrument, but it is not the same.

Types of Analyzers

There are various types of analyzers:

1. Spectrum Analyzer

A spectrum analyzer analyzes the frequency components of high-frequency signals.

It can analyze radio wave conditions that cannot be seen by the eye. The analysis results are displayed in terms of the magnitude of the components for each frequency. It is a measuring instrument used to inspect radio wave facilities such as cell phone base stations, and in many cases it is taken out and used on site. 

The horizontal axis of the analysis screen displays frequency (unit: Hz), and the vertical axis displays amplitude (unit: dB), allowing measurements from very weak signals to strong signals.

2. Network Analyzer

A network analyzer analyzes the characteristics of electronic components and analyzes electronic components modeled as a 4-terminal circuit network.

It measures currents, voltages, etc. at the input and output to obtain transfer characteristics (S-parameters). The gain magnitude at each frequency, phase at each frequency, etc. are output as analysis results. Graphs and Smith charts are used as display formats.

It is possible to measure the attenuation and impedance of input signals in electronic circuits. In a circuit network that handles high frequencies, impedance mismatches that occur between devices or cables can cause power loss or signal distortion, so they are analyzed with an analyzer.

3. Semiconductor Parameter Analyzer

Sometimes called a source measure, this analyzer analyzes the input/output characteristics of semiconductors such as transistors. The graph shows the change in output current, voltage, and resistance when the input voltage or current is varied.

Since this graph is generally a curve, it is sometimes called a curve tracer.

4. Power Analyzer

A power analyzer analyzes harmonics, momentary interruptions, overvoltages, and other variations in AC power. It includes functions such as power measurement and waveform display, harmonic analysis (FFT), etc.

It is used for measurements in smart grids (renewable energy) and inverters for electric drives in automobiles.

5. FFT Analyzer

FFT analyzers analyze low-frequency signals.

The 2CH model is used to analyze transfer characteristics. This model is used in the development of automobiles and aircraft. The analysis results are displayed in a graph showing the magnitude of the components at each frequency and the phase at each frequency.

FFT is a method of digitally performing Fourier transforms, and is characterized by its high-speed arithmetic processing. FFT analyzers are included in the broad classification of spectrum analyzers, but FFT analyzers are used at frequencies as low as 100 kHz.

6. Logic Analyzer

Logic analyzers measure signals flowing in logic circuits such as CPUs and analyze logic values (binary logic of 0s and 1s) from the measured signal voltages.

There are two measurement methods: timing measurement and state measurement. It has many measurement channels and can simultaneously measure high-speed digital signals. Recently, the number of digital signals itself is decreasing as digital systems are being integrated into IC chips, and logic analyzers are being used less frequently.

7. Protocol Analyzer

A protocol analyzer analyzes signals handled by digital communications and digital interfaces. In addition to dedicated hardware products, they also include software that runs on a PC. Software tools include LAN analyzers and packet analyzers.

Although we have mainly introduced analyzers in the fields of electricity, electronics, and communications, there are also analyzers in other fields such as chemistry, biology, and medicine.

What Is Inspection Equipment?

Inspection equipment is a generic term for equipment used to check whether something is in the correct or abnormal condition.

Inspection equipment is used during or at the end of the manufacturing process to assure the quality of products made by equipment or people. Generally, normal values are set, and if the inspection result is within the normal range, it is OK, and if it is outside the normal range, it is not.

Inspection methods include those that visually inspect the position and condition, such as image inspection, and those that measure metrological values such as flow rate and pressure. Almost any inspection can be performed as long as the condition can be quantified and a normal range can be set.

Types of Inspection Equipment

1. Appearance Inspection Machine

A camera is used to photograph the product and inspect whether there are any misalignments in processing or assembly positions, or whether there are any missing parts. A product is considered good if it satisfies all of the predetermined dimensions, angles, and positions of parts, etc., and defective if any of these are out of alignment. There is also an inspection process to check for bridges and spattering after soldering.

2. X-Ray Inspection Equipment

This inspection equipment is used to find defects inside a product that cannot be detected from the outside. It is often used in the casting process to detect internal cracks, nests, and foreign objects. X-rays used in hospitals are also used to check for abnormalities in the body.

3. Printing Inspection Machine

Inspection machines are widely used in the printing industry. They take pictures of printed materials with a camera and inspect them for printing errors, ink splattering, foreign matter, and other contaminants.

Widespread Use Of Sensory Inspection Equipment

Sensory testing is a type of product inspection in which a person uses all five senses (sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch) to detect abnormalities. This is based on the fact that humans can instantly detect even the slightest irregularity by running their fingers over the surface of a product, and can immediately notice any unusual smells or tastes.

However, there are problems with human inspections, such as sensitivity being dulled by physical conditions, and the standard of judgment being varied from person to person. In addition, it takes a long time to train people to perform accurate inspections, and it is time-consuming to develop human resources.

In recent years, this sensory inspection has been automated. Thanks to improvements in imaging technology, visual inspections have already been largely automated, smell and taste can now be quantified, and auditory and tactile senses can detect abnormalities based on differences in vibration and other factors.

What Are Relays?

A relay is a component with the function of a switch that turns on or off a subsequent electrical circuit by means of an electrical signal received from an external source.

Unlike manual controls, such as lighting that are turned on and off with a pushbutton, automatic controls require electrically operated contacts. For this purpose, relays are used, whose contacts are operated by electromagnetic force.

A relay is a device that opens or closes an electric circuit by electromagnetic force, and depending on the set capacity, can control even large loads. They are also called electromagnetic relays.

Types of Relays

Relays can be divided into two main types: contact relays and non-contact relays. Contact relays are also called mechanical relays, and non-contact relays are called solid-state relays (SSR).

1. With Contact Relays

Contact relays consist of a coil wound around an iron core and an electrical contact that turns the current on and off. When electricity flows through the coil, a magnetic field is generated, which attracts the metal contacts and energizes them when they make contact. The operation of the electromagnet and contacts are mechanically linked, but electrically separate. For example, the contacts of a relay operating at a voltage of 24 VDC can be used to light a 100 VAC light bulb.

2. Contactless Relay

A relay that does not have mechanically operating components like a contact relay. It consists of electronic components such as photodiodes, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and TRIACs and thyristors, which are a type of power semiconductor. The basic principle is that the photodiode receives the light generated by the current flowing through the light-emitting diode and current flows through it.

Role of Relays

Relays can switch large currents on and off with a small amount of current.

• When operating electrical equipment that consumes large amounts of current, such as motors and heaters, there is a risk that a large inrush current will flow through the operating switch if it is left in place, causing it to overheat or burn out. By inserting a relay between the switch and the load, such hazards can be prevented. It also prevents electric shocks to people operating electronic equipment.
• Inserting a relay between an electrical device and a battery shortens the wiring through which large currents flow and reduces resistance. In addition, since only a small current flows between relays and operation switches, they can be connected using thin wiring, greatly reducing power consumption.

Because relays have such a variety of effects, they are used in a wide range of applications, including in-vehicle, communications, home appliances, and factory control equipment.

What Is a Pump?

A pump is a device that uses the action of pressure to pump or deliver a gas or liquid.

Applications include pumping from a lower position to a higher position, converting low pressure to high pressure, and converting or releasing mechanical energy.

Examples include:

• Pumping groundwater to use above ground
• Pumping pond water and releasing it into a fire
• Pumping compressed air into a cylinder to push things out

How a Pump Works

There is atmospheric pressure on the earth, which is always standard 1,013 hPa at ground level (0 m above sea level). This state is called 1 atmospheric pressure, and the state in which the pressure inside a container falls below 1 atmospheric pressure is called negative pressure.

Since fluid has the property of flowing from higher pressure to lower pressure, by creating negative pressure in the pump, fluid under atmospheric pressure is drawn into the pump. The fluid in the pump is sucked in and pushed out to create pressure, and when the pressure exceeds 1,013 hPa, the fluid is pumped to a location higher than ground level or converted into mechanical energy.

In the case of vane pumps used in hydraulic systems, fluid in the pump is forced out through the discharge port as the vane, which is directly connected to the motor, rotates in the enclosed pump head. As the fluid is pushed out, a vacuum is created inside the pump, creating a negative pressure.

When negative pressure is generated, the fluid in the tank is sucked into the pump through the feed port and pushed out again, creating pressure.

Types of Pumps

There are several ways to divide pump types, but the major types are by structure or by application.

1. Structure Type

Vane Pump
A radial impeller called a vane is rotated to create suction and discharge.

Centrifugal Pump
Rotates a spiral-shaped impeller to suction and discharge.

Gear Pump
Two gears are meshed together and rotate each other to perform suction and discharge.

Piston Pump
Suction and discharge are performed by reciprocating a piston.

2. Types Of Applications

Submersible Pump
Submersible pumps are waterproof and used in tanks.

High-Pressure Pump
Produces extremely high pressure and is used for pumping to high places, washing machines, etc.

Vacuum Pump
These pumps are used to create a vacuum and are used to collect liquids and reduce pressure.

What Is a Motor?

A motor is an electrical device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Generally, motors output rotational motion by utilizing the force generated by the interaction between a magnetic field and an electric current – known as the Lorentz force.

A motor consists of a rotor, which has a rotating shaft, a stator, which rotates the rotor, a bearing, which supports the rotating shaft, and a cooling system, which cools the heat generated by the losses. The part of the rotor and stator that generates the magnetic field is called the field magnet, and the part that interacts with the field magnet and generates the magnetic field to obtain torque is called the armature.

Linear motors, as well as other variations of linear motors, are also available.

Motor Mechanism

The following is an explanation of the most basic brushed DC motor mechanism.

First, a coil is placed in a magnetic field between the S and N poles. The current flowing through the coil generates a magnetic field in the coil, which repels one pole and attracts the other pole, causing the coil to rotate. By reversing the current flowing through the coil during rotation, the forces of repulsion and attraction are interchanged, and rotation is sustained.

There is an element called a commutator in the motor, and when the commutator hits the brushes, power is supplied from the brushes. The commutator rotates with the shaft, and the position where the commutator contacts the brush moves with the rotation. The direction of the electric current changes as the position of the commutator changes.

The basic structure of a simple DC motor consists of a coiled wire, brushes, and commutator fixed to the rotating shaft within the magnetic field of a magnet. The commutator is the part that switches the contact/non-contact between the power source and the coil. The brush is responsible for bringing the commutator into contact with the power supply. When a DC current is applied to the coil, the Lorentz force acts according to the direction of the current and the coil begins to rotate.

However, when the coil rotates 180 degrees and the left and right sides are reversed, rotation stops and a commutator is required. The commutator suspends contact between the coil and the power supply when the coil has rotated 90 degrees. In this state, the coil continues to rotate by inertia, and the next time the commutator contacts the power supply, the Lorentz force again acts in the direction of coil rotation.

Classification of Motors

Motors are classified by drive power supply into two types: DC (direct current) and AC (alternating current). In addition, motors are classified by structure and principle as follows: 

1. DC Motors

DC motors are capable of high-speed rotation of 30,000~40,000 rpm and have high torque.

• Brushed Motors
  Brushed motors are the most common type of motor. The current is switched by sequentially bringing the brushes, which are electrodes on the stator side, into contact with the commutator on the armature side, thereby causing the motor to rotate.
• Brushless Motor
  Brushless motors do not use brushes and commutators. The current is switched electrically using a switching function with a transistor, etc. (Application example: CD player).
• Stepping Motor
  A stepping motor operates using pulsed electric power and are also called a pulse motor. They are characterized by its ability to easily perform accurate positioning operations. (Application example: Printer)

2. AC Motor

Also called induction motors, AC motors are motors that rotate on an AC power source. A coil that generates a magnetic field around an aluminum disk is prepared, and an alternating current is used to rotate the aluminum disk. An inverter is used to control the speed of the AC motor, allowing smooth acceleration from low speeds and speed control at will.

• Induction Motor
  AC generates a rotating magnetic field in the stator and an induced current in the rotor. Rotation is caused by this action.
• Synchronous Motor
  Rotation occurs when the rotor with magnetic poles is attracted and followed by the rotating magnetic field created by the alternating current. The speed of rotation is synchronized with the power supply frequency.

What Is Testing Equipment?

Testing equipment is a generic term for equipment used to examine material properties such as strength and hardness, and to verify the performance of products that have been developed and designed.

Since testing equipment provide experiments and confirmations, they are used for processes that do not create added value, but they are definitely important for companies to confirm the durability of products or to obtain data for development and design.

Difference Between Testing Equipment and Testing Instruments

1. Testing Machine

A testing machine is a piece of equipment used for experimentation and verification. It incorporates complex mechanisms, devices, etc., and requires programming and operation. 

2. Testing Equipment

Testing equipment refers specifically to the tools and instruments used for experiments and checks.

Types of Testing Equipment

Types of testing equipment can be broadly classified into two categories:

• Material testing equipment, to examine material properties such as strength and hardness of materials
• Performance testing equipment, to examine performance such as output and fuel consumption of products.

1. Material Testing Equipment

Material testing machines include the following:

• Tensile Testing Machines
  Tensile testing machines pull materials to examine its tension, yield point, breaking point, etc.
• Compression Testing Machine
  Compression testing machines are used to examine stress and strain by crushing and breaking materials.
• Bending Tester
  A bending tester is used to examine the strength and deformation of a material by applying force to it and bending it until it is deformed.
• Torsion Testing Machine
  A torsion testing machine examines the torque at which deformation occurs and the number of revolutions until the material breaks by twisting it while holding both ends of the material.

2. Performance Tester

Depending on the product, a variety of performance testers can have a variety of items to examine.

The following is an example of an automobile performance tester:

• Output Tester
  An output tester measures the output of an engine or motor. This is an important test that is greatly related to the performance of a car in terms of speed and load capacity.
• Emission and Fuel Consumption Tester
  An emission and fuel consumption tester is used to measure emissions during operation and fuel consumption. The fuel efficiency test measures fuel efficiency according to the situation, such as maximum fuel efficiency and fuel efficiency in city driving.
• Noise Measurement Tester
  A noise measurement tester is used to measure driving noise. There are two types of tests: one examines the noise produced by the vehicle itself, such as engine revolutions and exhaust noise, and the other examines differences in noise levels caused by road surface conditions and different types of tires.