月: 2023年1月

What Is Bag Making Machinery?

Bag-making machinery is used to make bags of various materials for packaging.

Recently, bag making is often combined with bag stuffing, and stand-alone machines are becoming less common. However, in supermarkets and agricultural production areas, ready-made bags are still used for packaging and are still in demand.

Rectangular bags with square bottoms are the most commonly produced type of bags, and other well-known types include plastic shopping bags and paper bags with handles, often used in department stores.

There are two types of handles for paper bags with handles: round strings and flat strings and different bag-making machinery is used for each type.

Principle of Bag Making Machinery

Bag-making machinery is often used by specialized manufacturers who deliver finished products to a wide range of customers.

OPP (oriented polypropylene), CPP (non-oriented polypropylene), and PE (polyethylene) are well-known materials for plastic film used in bag-making machinery.

Other materials used include NY (nylon), PET (polyethylene terephthalate), AL (aluminum foil), and aluminum evaporated film. Aluminum vapor-deposited film is a material used for retort-pouch foods, which has become well-established recently.

How to Select Bag Making Machinery

Bag-making machinery can be selected based on the bag-making configuration.

• Three-side seal
  This is the most orthodox type of pouch and is the type often seen these days in products such as “stand-up packs” that can stand on their own feet. Bag-making machinery may vary for the same type depending on the zipper and the size of the bag.
• Half-fold type
  Unlike the three-side-seal type, this type is made by folding back one seal and sealing on two sides. Since the bottom is not sealed, this type is strong and suitable for relatively heavy or large-volume products.
• Center seal
  Like the half-fold type, this type uses a single sheet of film, but it is folded on both sides and sealed at the center.
• Melt-cut type
  This type uses a single sheet of film for both sealing and fusing, making it possible to produce bags with special shapes such as triangles and trapezoids.

In addition, the type that can also be used to add pouches with a spout, which is becoming more common these days, is also available.

What Is Binding Machinery?

Binding machinery binds paper into books or booklets through various methods such as gluing or stitching.

These machines accommodate different binding styles including saddle-stitching, perfect binding, ring binding, and others, suitable for small office environments to large-scale commercial production.

Uses of Binding Machinery

Binding machinery produces a wide range of bound products, from simple pamphlets to complex textbooks, depending on the binding technique.

1. Saddle Stitch Binding

Used for brochures and magazines, this method stitches along the fold of gathered sheets.

2. Perfect Binding

For thicker publications, pages are glued at the spine with a wrap-around cover.

3. Ring Binding

Documents and notebooks are bound with plastic or metal rings through punched holes.

Principle of Binding Machinery

Binding machines differentiate in binding methods, from wire stitching for standard books to thread sewing for durable, top-bound volumes.

1. Wire Binding

A straightforward method, stitching pages together with wire in either saddle-stitch or flat-binding fashion.

2. Glue Binding

Glue is applied to the spine for perfect binding, suitable for various publications.

3. Thread Binding

Pages are sewn with thread for added durability, often seen in top-bound books for long-term preservation.

Types of Binding Machinery

Binding machinery varies by the binding process it supports, from simple stitching to complex gluing methods.

1. Saddle-Stitch Binding

Sheets are folded, stitched at the center, then folded again to form the booklet.

2. Perfect Binding

Pages are glued at the spine and covered, creating a flat spine.

3. Ring Binding

Sheets are punched and bound with rings, allowing for easy opening and closing.

How to Select Binding Machinery

Selection should consider the binding type’s benefits and limitations, from cost-effective saddle stitching to flexible ring binding.

1. Saddle-Stitch Binding

Ideal for shorter documents, offering a flat opening but limited by page count.

2. Perfect Binding

Suitable for thicker catalogs, providing a professional finish but may not lay flat when opened.

3. Ring Binding

Offers versatility with 360° opening, perfect for documents requiring frequent page turning.

What Is an Infrared Camera?

An infrared camera is a camera that creates images by capturing “infrared light,” a type of electromagnetic radiation.

Normal digital cameras take pictures using electromagnetic waves called “visible light,” which is visible to the human eye. These cameras have the problem that it is difficult to take pictures in the dark, or other environments where there is no light source.

Infrared cameras use infrared light, not visible light, to take pictures. Infrared radiation is emitted from all objects except those that don’t have heat, i.e., those that are at absolute zero. Therefore, an infrared camera that can detect infrared light can take pictures with or without a light source, unlike a normal camera.

Uses of Infrared Cameras

Infrared cameras are unique in that they can detect infrared radiation that cannot be captured by ordinary digital cameras. They are used as security cameras and surveillance cameras because they can be used in dark places where it is difficult for normal digital cameras to capture images.

The infrared radiation emitted by an object can also provide information on the object’s heat and temperature, as well as information on the object’s composition. Therefore, infrared cameras are widely used for applications other than simple cameras, such as temperature control and inspections of production processes and infrastructure.

Principle of Infrared Cameras

Infrared cameras are special cameras that use infrared light to take pictures, but the configuration and principle of operation itself is basically the same as that of a regular digital camera.

Infrared cameras have an infrared sensor built into the camera, which acts as the “image sensor” in a normal digital camera. The infrared sensor consists of a regular array of tiny elements called pixels.

Each material used in an infrared sensor has a different range of detectable infrared light. For example, indium antimonide sensors have a range of 1.5 to 5.1 µm. It is therefore important to check that the infrared radiation emitted by the object being photographed is included in the detection range before use.

Like ordinary digital cameras, infrared cameras are also equipped with a lens that directs the captured light to the sensor. Various types of lenses are available for normal and close-up photography, and the most appropriate one should be selected according to the size of the object to be photographed and other factors.

What Is a Pulse Oximeter?

Figure 1. Oxygen meter overview

Pulse Oximeters are instruments used to measure the concentration of oxygen in the air.

It is sometimes referred to as an oxygen sensor or oxygen monitor. Because oxygen is essential for human life, it is extremely important to monitor the concentration of oxygen in the environment.

In addition, there are many cases in which accurate oxygen concentration control is required in various scientific and industrial fields, and instruments are manufactured to meet specific applications.

Uses of Pulse Oximeters

Pulse Oximeters are used in the following two major applications

• Monitoring (detection and monitoring) of oxygen concentration for the purpose of preventing oxygen deficiency
• Oxygen concentration control in industrial processes, etc.

In the prevention of oxygen deficiency, oxygen concentration is monitored for the purpose of life support in enclosed spaces such as tunnels. It is said that if the oxygen concentration falls below 15%, a person will have difficulty breathing, if it falls below 7%, brain function will be impaired, and if it falls below 4%, death will occur. The equipment comes in portable and wall-mounted forms.

In some industrial heat treatment processes, such as in the chemical industry, ceramics, and metals, oxygen levels must be kept low. Industrial furnace combustion processes also require monitoring and control of oxygen concentration to optimize combustion efficiency and the redox process. Pulse Oximeters for these industrial purposes must be durable enough to withstand harsh environments, such as high-temperature chemical reaction fields.

Principle of Pulse Oximeters

The two main operating principles of Pulse Oximeters are the “galvanic cell type” and the “zirconia solid electrolyte type. Other types include the “magnetic type” and “wavelength tunable semiconductor laser spectrometer type.

1. Galvanic Battery Type

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of galvanic cell oxygen analyzer

The galvanic cell consists of a resin membrane that allows oxygen from the outside world to pass through, gold (Au) and lead (Pb) electrodes, and an electrolyte (potassium hydroxide solution). The following reactions take place at each electrode

• Anode: Pb + 2OH- → Pb2+ +H2O + 2e-
• Cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4H2O

The electrons emitted at the anode reach the cathode, where oxygen taken in from the air takes up the electrons emitted at the anode. Since the flow of electrons (current) is proportional to the oxygen concentration, the oxygen concentration can be measured by measuring the current. Since this reaction occurs spontaneously, no power supply is required to drive the sensor.

2. Zirconia Solid Electrolyte Method

Figure 3. Schematic diagram of a zirconia solid electrolyte oxygen meter

This method uses a zirconia cell, taking advantage of the fact that zirconia exhibits solid electrolyte properties at temperatures of 500°C or higher.

Zirconia can conduct oxygen negative ions (O2-) in a solid state, and the ions are conducted from a gas with high oxygen concentration (in the air) to an atmosphere with low oxygen concentration (in an industrial furnace, for example).

This ionic conduction generates a potential difference, and electrodes are placed on the high O2 concentration side and the low O2 concentration side, respectively, to generate an electromotive force. The relationship is just like the positive and negative electrodes of a battery.

• High O2 concentration side: O2 + 4e- → 2O2-
• Low O2 concentration side: 2O2- → O2 + 4e-

The electromotive force generated between the electrodes obeys the Nernst equation (see below), so the oxygen partial pressure at each electrode can be determined.

• E=(RT/4F)-ln(PA/PB)
• (R: gas constant, T: temperature, F: Faraday constant, PA: oxygen partial pressure at high concentration (in air), PB: oxygen partial pressure at low concentration)

The temperature is measured by thermocouples attached to the zirconia.

In an atmosphere of approximately 400°C or lower, the target gas is introduced into the device via a sampling tube, and the zirconia cell is heated to a predetermined temperature using a platinum heater, etc. (sampling method). This is because zirconia requires a temperature of 500°C or higher to function as a solid electrolyte.

How to Select a Pulse Oximeter

Different Pulse Oximeters should be used for the prevention of oxygen deficiency and for maintaining low oxygen concentrations in industrial processes.

Portable and stationary oxygen meters designed to prevent oxygen deficiency use galvanic cell batteries, which do not require a power supply to drive the sensor. The life of the sensor is approximately 2 to 3 years. However, the usable environment is limited to an atmosphere similar to the general environment, and the accuracy is about ±0.5% O2. Some products are explosion-proof.

On the other hand, zirconia-type products are used to measure oxygen concentration in high-temperature industrial processes such as industrial furnaces, etc. Under an atmosphere of 700°C or higher, the direct insertion type is used by inserting the sensor directly into the atmosphere, while under 400°C, a separate zirconia cell is used by drawing in the atmosphere gas inside the furnace through a sampling tube, etc. For temperatures below 400°C, a sampling method that draws in atmospheric gas from the furnace through a sampling tube and separately heats the zirconia cell is appropriate.

What Is a Cutting Tool?

A cutting tool is a tool used in the cutting process. Cutting is classified as a machining process called removal machining, in which the surface of a material, such as metal, wood, or plastic, is removed to create a desired shape. The tool is moved relative to the material to remove it. The material to be cut is called the work material.

Because cutting requires a large amount of force, in most cases cutting tool is mounted on a machine. When the amount of material to be cut is very small or soft materials are to be processed, the tool may be held by hand.

The parts that are removed and discarded are called chips or swarf.

Uses of Cutting Tools

There are various types of cutting tools. Typical examples include bites used in lathe turning, cutters and end mills used in milling, hob cutters used to cut gears, drills used to make holes, and broaches used in broaching machines.

The removal rate per hour is higher compared to grinding with a regular wheel, enabling more efficient machining. On the other hand, grinding is superior in terms of dimensional accuracy and surface roughness, so when high-precision machining is required, it can be done by grinding after cutting.

Principle of Cutting Tools

Cutting tools are required to have high levels of hardness (wear resistance), heat resistance, and toughness (resistance to chipping) so that they will not be easily worn or damaged when cutting materials.

Typical materials for cutting tools include, in descending order of hardness, diamond, CBN (cubic boron nitride), cemented carbide, and HSS (high-speed tool steel). Hardness and toughness are inversely related, and the most suitable one is selected according to the material and shape of the work material.

Although the use of a tool with high hardness seems to be good because it increases wear resistance, lengthens tool life, and improves cutting performance, even a slight impact can cause the edge of the cutting tools to break.

In addition to the material, the shape of the cutting edge is also an important factor. The sharper the cutting edge, the better the cutting performance, which results in less cutting resistance and a cleaner finish of the work material. However, a sharp tip reduces the strength of the tool and makes it prone to chipping.

The key to good cutting tool performance is to select the optimum cutting tool material and cutting edge shape according to the material and shape of the work material.

What Is a Cutting Wheel?

A cutting wheel is a specialized wheel designed specifically for cutting applications and differs from a standard wheel primarily used for grinding.

Cutting wheels can be used with a variety of tools and machines, including disk grinders, engine cutters, and high-speed cutting machines, and the specifications of the cutting wheel vary.

In addition, a cutting wheel must be used according to the material to be cut. Therefore, it is necessary to check carefully on catalogs and other sources.

Each company has its own brand name for its main cutting wheel products, which are registered as trademarks.

Uses of Cutting Wheels

Cutting wheels are used in machining, construction, electronics, optical glass and ceramic cutting, and sample cutting for microstructural analysis.

Cutting wheels are mainly used to cut stainless steel, general steel, small-diameter pipes, and interior materials used in construction.

Since working with cutting wheels are hazardous task that requires close contact with the operator’s eyes, it is subject to special training, and trial operations during replacement are also required.

How to Select Cutting Wheels

When selecting cutting wheels, it’s crucial to consider the following factors, which should be thoroughly examined in catalogs and other sources before purchasing or using the wheel.

• Dimensions
  The minimum dimensions required are the outer diameter (mm), blade thickness (mm), and hole diameter (mm), which are always listed in catalogs regardless of the manufacturer.
• Types of synthetic abrasives
  The main types of alumina-based abrasives include “light red alumina abrasive,” “white alumina abrasive,” and “alumina zirconia abrasive,” while silicon carbide-based abrasives include “black silicon carbide abrasive” and “green silicon carbide abrasive.”
• Grain Size
  Cutting wheels are made in the range of #20 (coarse) to #100 (fine). The smaller the number, the larger the grain size, and the shorter the cutting time, but the rougher the cut surface.
• Bonding Degree
  The standard for selecting the degree of bonding is that if it is too hard, it is more likely to be ground and clogged.

In addition, the horsepower (kW) of the motor to be installed and the wheel rotation speed (rpm) are also necessary items for selection.

What Is an Insulating Material?

Insulating materials are substances that resist or do not conduct electricity, such as plastic and rubber. Conductors easily transmit electricity, while semiconductors transition between conductive and insulative states under certain conditions like temperature changes.

The conductive properties of a material are determined by the mobility of free electrons within it. Insulators lack significant free electron movement, preventing electrical current flow.

Uses of Insulating Materials

Insulating materials are essential for covering circuit boards and cables in electronic devices to prevent electrical shorts. They are commonly used in power cables and other cable types like LAN and USB, utilizing rubber or vinyl as the insulating layer.

These materials also protect circuit board components from moisture by providing a waterproof coating.

Principle of Insulating Materials

The fundamental difference between insulators and conductors lies in the energy band gap between the conduction and valence bands. Insulators have a large band gap, preventing electrons from easily moving to the conduction band and hence inhibiting current flow. Conversely, conductors have a negligible band gap, allowing free electron movement and current flow. Under extreme energy conditions, such as lightning, insulators can become conductive.

Types of Insulating Materials

1. Gas Insulators

Gas insulators include air and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), the latter known for its excellent dielectric strength in electrical applications, such as gas-insulated circuit breakers and gas-insulated transformers, though its usage is limited due to environmental concerns.

2. Liquid Insulating Materials

These range from vegetable oil to synthetic and mineral oils, used primarily for cooling and insulating in oil-filled electrical systems.

3. Solid Insulating Materials

Mica, ceramics, and glass are solid insulators, each offering unique properties like high heat resistance and insulation capability, used in a variety of electrical components.

4. Organic Fibrous Materials

Materials such as silk, cotton, paper, polyester, and nylon, with paper often used in conjunction with insulating oil in electrical equipment.

5. Paint-Based Materials

Insulating paints are created from synthetic or natural resins dissolved in solvents, applied to protect and insulate electrical components.

6. Rubber-Based Materials

Various rubbers, including silicone and natural rubber, are utilized for their insulating properties in wire coatings and molded products.

7. Resin-Based Materials

Both natural and synthetic resins are used in insulating paints, wire sheathing, and molded electrical insulators.

What Is Insulated Wire?

Insulated wire is an electric wire that has been treated with insulation.

Electric power, supplied by electric power companies, is transmitted to various locations at ultra-high voltages called extra-high voltage. The special high-voltage power lines are on steel towers several tens of meters high and are bare because there is no danger of people coming into contact with them. Therefore, there is a risk of electric shock if a person comes in contact with the tower touching it.

In contrast, power is transmitted to ordinary homes and commercial facilities at high-voltage or low-voltage. These are protected by insulating materials because of the danger of accidental contact by people. These are called insulated wires.

Uses of Insulated Wire

A familiar example is wiring on utility poles. You can see black wires laid overhead on utility poles erected on the street. They appear black because they are insulated with cross-linked polyethylene or rubber. Insulated wire is also commonly used for wiring laid within the walls of ordinary homes.

Also, when you disassemble a household appliance, you may see vinyl-coated wires inside. This is a type of insulated wire called vinyl wire. The outlet cords used in dryers and other appliances are also insulated wire.

Insulated wire is rarely seen in ordinary households.

Principle of Insulated Wire

Insulated wires are divided into shielded and unshielded wires.

First, unshielded wires have a long, thin copper at the center that serves as an electrical circuit; insulated wires called VVF cables, etc., consist of a single copper wire, while cables called VCTF, etc., consist of many thin copper wires twisted together. Regardless of whether it is a single wire or a stranded wire, the standard of the cable is called by the thickness of the internal copper wire. The thicker the wire, the more current it can carry. The thickness of the copper wire is determined by the power requirements of the terminal equipment used. As a reference, a 100V household outlet, for example, requires about 15A, and a VVF cable with a cross-sectional area of 1.6mm2 is used.

The surface of the cable is covered with an insulating coating to prevent human contact with the internal power lines. Rubber, cross-linked polyethylene, or vinyl chloride are used as the insulation coating. For household and other applications, only vinyl chloride is used. For industrial use, both cross-linked polyethylene and vinyl chloride are used to provide double insulation.

Shielded wires are made by shielding the vinyl chloride and other materials with aluminum or copper to prevent induced voltages. Generally, shielded wires are used for high-voltage applications where there is a risk of electric shock to the human body due to induced voltage. In some cases, they are also used for weak electric cables to eliminate errors caused by induction.

What Is a Wash Bottle?

A wash bottle is a transparent or translucent plastic container equipped with a nozzle to dispense washing solutions.

Commonly found in laboratories within factories, research centers, and educational institutions, wash bottles facilitate the cleaning of equipment dirtied during experiments or processes with water or solvents.

The bottles contain solvents prepared in advance for immediate use, featuring a one-hand operable nozzle to ease the cleaning process.

Uses of Wash Bottles

Wash bottles are utilized for cleaning laboratory instruments with water, organic solvents, or other cleaning solutions. The nozzle design allows direct application of the solution onto instruments or dispensing onto a rag for wiping away contaminants. They can also be used to dispense precise amounts of liquid, such as filling a graduated cylinder to a specific mark.

Structure of Wash Bottles

Typically, a wash bottle consists of a polyethylene bottle and a nozzle, with a tube extending from the nozzle into the solution. Some wash bottles are made of glass to avoid plastic component elution in sensitive applications.

Other Information on Wash Bottles

1. How to Use a Wash Bottle

To operate, squeeze the bottle to eject liquid through the nozzle. The design allows for easy one-handed use, essential during experiments or cleaning tasks. Releasing the grip permits air to re-enter the bottle through the nozzle, readying it for subsequent use.

2. Suitable Cleaning Liquids

Commonly used cleaning solutions include ion-exchanged or distilled water, and solvents like methanol, ethanol, acetone, and isopropanol. Solvents such as toluene should be used briefly to avoid affecting the polyethylene bottle.

3. Color Coding

Color codes on wash bottles aid in identifying the contained solvent. Standard color labels include blue for water, white for ethanol, and red for acetone, though colors may vary by manufacturer.

4. Printed Labeling

Some wash bottles come pre-labeled with the solvent name, enhancing identification and reducing mix-up risks. Additionally, bottles may feature a Fire Diamond, indicating health, flammability, instability, and specific hazards.

5. Leakage and Spewing due to Temperature Changes

Temperature fluctuations can increase internal pressure, causing leakage or spewing, especially with volatile organic solvents. To mitigate fire and toxicity hazards, store wash bottles away from areas with significant temperature changes and use a sealed cock to prevent leakage, opening it only when in use.

What Is a Battery Pack?

A battery pack consists of a number of single cells connected together to form a single pack.

A battery pack of various voltages and capacities can be made by connecting different numbers of cells in different ways.

In addition, the size, shape, and terminal position can be customized freely to suit the application. Usually packaged in heat-shrinkable tubing, they are also available in metal cases or resin.

Uses of Battery Packs

Battery packs can be freely designed in terms of shape, voltage, and capacity to suit a variety of applications. The original cells for battery packs include nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride, and lithium-ion batteries, each of which has different characteristics, and can be selected according to the intended use.

Although nickel-cadmium batteries have long been used in a variety of devices, nickel-metal hydride batteries with higher capacity and lower self-discharge have recently become mainstream. Lithium-ion batteries have safety issues such as heat generation and ignition, but their lightweight and high capacity have led to their use mainly in portable devices.

Principle of Battery Packs

Battery packs come in a variety of shapes and sizes, depending on how the cells are arranged. The main types are the S array, in which cylindrical cells are arranged horizontally, and the W array, which has multiple rows of S array cells. Also, the L array, in which cells are arranged vertically, and the E array, which has multiple rows of L array cells. The output voltage can be increased by connecting the arrayed cells in series, and the capacity can be increased by connecting them in parallel. Furthermore, by combining cells in series and parallel, battery packs of desired voltage and capacity can be created.

The capacity of battery packs is expressed in units of mAh or Ah. For example, 1Ah has the capacity to carry a current of 1A for 1 hour. The ratio of the actual charge to this capacity is the charge rate (SOC). For example, nickel-metal hydride batteries should be used with a charge rate between 25% and 75%, and lithium-ion batteries should be used with a charge rate between 10% and 90% to extend the cycle life of the battery. There is also a depth of discharge (DOD) index that indicates the ratio of discharged to capacity, and repeated use at shallower depths of discharge is usually said to extend service life.

Most battery packs have a controller that controls charging and discharging together. To prevent unevenness in the state of charging and discharging due to variations in the characteristics of individual cells, the controller controls charging and discharging for each cell and for safe, rapid charging.